از مادرانگی زیستی تا مادرانگی انتخابی: واکاوی معنابخشی به مادرانگی در زنان ایرانی دارای فرزندخوانده

From Biological Motherhood to Chosen Motherhood: A Grounded Theory Study of Meaning-Making Among Iranian Adoptive Mothers

Extended Abstract

Introduction and Problem Statement

Motherhood, in many cultures including Iran, constitutes a core aspect of female social and ethical identity, often linked to biological processes of pregnancy, childbirth, and breastfeeding. This perception, rooted in what Ruddick termed the dominant "maternal ideology," creates a hegemonic norm where the "real mother" is who has experienced bearing a child. In Iran, this biologistic view is deeply embedded within cultural, familial, and legal institutions, framing motherhood as a primarily bodily phenomenon and a key determinant of social recognition. Bourdieu's concept of symbolic capital explains how biological ties function as pre-established legitimacy within the social field of motherhood, shaping both public and familial perceptions. Consequently, non-procreative paths, such as adoption, are often marginalized, lacking this initial symbolic capital and facing a "challenge of legitimization," which can affect mothers’ social credibility and self-concept.

While international research has explored adoptive mothers’ identity formation, highlighting ambivalence, social scrutiny, and negotiation (Sigismondi, 2024; McInerney et al., 2021; Fontenot, 2007), the specific socio-cultural context of Iran, emphasizing bloodline and kinship, remains underexplored. Iranian studies have largely focused on legal, jurisprudential, or child-centric psychological aspects, with limited attention to mothers’ lived experiences, personal reflections, and identity-making processes (Hosseini & Mohaddesi, 2019). This study addresses this gap by investigating how Iranian adoptive mothers construct meaning, navigate societal expectations, and claim legitimacy within a dominant biologistic discourse, highlighting both individual agency and structural constraints.

Theoretical Framework and Methodology

This qualitative inquiry employs Constructivist Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2006; Strauss & Corbin), which is particularly suited for exploring complex, interpretive social processes like meaning-making, allowing theory to emerge inductively from participants’ narratives. Three theoretical perspectives guide the analysis:

a) Dominant Maternal Ideology (Ruddick, 1989; Chodorow): to analyze hegemonic norms privileging biological motherhood and shaping social expectations.

b) Bourdieu's Symbolic Capital and Social Fields: to conceptualize the "field of motherhood" as an unequal space where mothers compete for legitimacy, social recognition, and authority.

c) Identity Work (Gonzales & Bauman, Snow & Anderson): Within this framework, identity is understood as a dynamic process rather than a stable personal essence. to examine the active, ongoing strategies mothers use to construct, sustain, and negotiate credible maternal identities.

Data were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 26 adoptive mothers in Tehran Province, recruited via purposive and theoretical sampling. Interviews, lasting 60–90 minutes, were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding, producing a substantive theoretical model that captures both the individual and social dimensions of identity-making in adoptive motherhood.

Key Findings: The Paradigm Model of Transformation

The core phenomenon is the "Transformation from Biological to Chosen Motherhood," navigated in response to the challenge of "Legitimization within the Social Field of Motherhood," reflecting both personal meaning-making and negotiation of societal norms.

3.1. Causal Conditions

Infertility as Identity Failure: Experiencing infertility as a profound crisis of feminine identity, accompanied by social devaluation and internalized feelings of inadequacy.

Search for Meaning: An existential quest for purpose and significance in life, interrupted or rendered repetitive by childlessness, motivating mothers to seek alternative pathways to fulfillment.

Emotional Encounter with the Child: A pivotal moment when meeting the child transforms initial feelings of pity or uncertainty into deep connection, belonging, and recognition of maternal purpose.

3.2. Strategies for Identity Work and Legitimization

Narrative Construction of Choice: Reframing motherhood as a conscious, ethical decision, which redefines identity from "infertile women" to "agentic mothers" capable of meaningful action.

Emphasis on Acquired Love: Highlighting that maternal love develops gradually through daily care, challenging assumptions of instinctive, innate maternal attachment.

Creation of Symbolic Similarities: Deliberately fostering physical, behavioral, and stylistic resemblances with the child to create a visible, socially legible "naturalized" family image.

Controlled Transparency: Managing disclosure of adoption stories to balance honesty, protect the child’s well-being, and navigate social stigma strategically.

3.3. Contextual and Intervening Conditions

Extended Family Support: Acceptance and validation from wider family networks provide essential social capital, bolstering mothers’ legitimacy and confidence.

Ambiguous Legal Frameworks: Persistent legal uncertainties regarding guardianship and custody create institutional anxiety, complicating the security and permanence of the mother-child relationship.

3.4. Consequence: Redefined Motherhood

The outcome is the emergence of "Redefined/Chosen Motherhood," characterized by conscious commitment, acquired love, and continuous emotional work rather than biological determinism. This identity represents a resilient, empowered form of motherhood, enabling mothers to navigate social constraints and redefine cultural expectations.

Discussion and Conclusion

Iranian adoptive mothers are active agents shaping their own maternal identities, negotiating both personal meaning and societal legitimacy. Through deliberate identity work, they reconstruct motherhood as a conscious, ethical project grounded in choice, responsibility, and nurtured love.

The study contributes theoretically by expanding the "Chosen Motherhood" model, illustrating that symbolic capital can be cultivated via non-biological routes and demonstrating the analytical potential of integrating Bourdieu, maternal ideology, and identity work frameworks.

Practically, findings emphasize the need for psychosocial support for adoptive families, legal reforms to clarify adoption-related ambiguities, and public campaigns to destigmatize non-biological motherhood. These experiences communicate a broader societal message: family can be forged on the foundations of love, care, and intentional meaning-making, transcending biological ties.