TIntroduction : Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a major mental health concern during adolescence and is associated with emotional distress, interpersonal difficulties, and an increased risk of later suicidal behaviors (Beckwith et al., 2024; De Luca et al., 2023). The prevalence of NSSI has increased worldwide, particularly among adolescent girls, emphasizing the need to identify family-related risk and protective factors (Apicella et al., 2025; Escofet-Colet et al., 2025). According to attachment theory, early interactions with caregivers shape internal working models that influence emotion regulation and interpersonal functioning throughout development (Bowlby, 1998). Adolescents with insecure attachment are more vulnerable to emotional dysregulation and maladaptive coping strategies, including NSSI (Cassels et al., 2019; Bahali et al., 2024).Maternal reflective functioning, defined as a mother's ability to understand behaviors in terms of underlying mental states, has been identified as an important protective factor for adolescents' emotional adjustment (Fonagy et al., 2016). Higher reflective functioning promotes sensitive parenting, secure attachment, and adaptive emotion regulation, whereas lower reflective functioning has been linked to insecure attachment and psychological maladjustment (Brugnera et al., 2021; Fiore et al., 2025; Cervantes et al., 2025). Although previous studies have examined attachment insecurity and reflective functioning separately, limited evidence has explored whether maternal reflective functioning moderates the relationship between insecure attachment and NSSI, particularly among Iranian adolescent girls. Therefore, this study investigated the association between insecure attachment styles and NSSI and examined the moderating role of maternal reflective functioning. Top of Form.

Methods

This study employed a descriptive-correlational design with a moderation analysis approach. The statistical population consisted of adolescent girls who met the inclusion criteria of the study. Participants were selected through an available sampling method and completed standardized self-report questionnaires assessing non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), insecure attachment styles (avoidant and ambivalent), and maternal reflective functioning. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations), Pearson correlation coefficients, and hierarchical moderated regression analyses were conducted to test the study hypotheses. Prior to hypothesis testing, assumptions of normality and the presence of outliers were examined. Z-scores indicated no univariate outliers, while skewness and kurtosis indices confirmed that all study variables were normally distributed and suitable for parametric analyses.

Results

Descriptive statistics indicated that adolescent girls reported moderate levels of non-suicidal self-injury, avoidant attachment, ambivalent attachment, and maternal reflective functioning. Correlation analyses revealed that both insecure attachment styles were significantly and positively associated with NSSI. Specifically, ambivalent attachment was positively correlated with NSSI (r = .27, p < .01), whereas avoidant attachment demonstrated a slightly stronger positive association (r = .30, p < .01). In contrast, maternal reflective functioning showed significant negative correlations with NSSI (r = –.40, p < .01), ambivalent attachment (r = –.26, p < .01), and avoidant attachment (r = –.28, p < .01). These findings suggest that adolescents who perceived greater maternal reflective functioning reported lower attachment insecurity and fewer self-injurious behaviors.

To examine the moderating role of maternal reflective functioning, two hierarchical moderated regression models were estimated. In the first model, ambivalent attachment significantly predicted NSSI in the initial step (β = .27, p < .001). Maternal reflective functioning independently predicted lower levels of NSSI (β = –.35, p < .001). However, the interaction between ambivalent attachment and maternal reflective functioning was not statistically significant (β = –.44, p = .090). Although the interaction term produced a slight increase in explained variance (from R² = .19 to R² = .20), this increase was not statistically meaningful. Therefore, maternal reflective functioning did not moderate the relationship between ambivalent attachment and NSSI. The second regression model examined avoidant attachment. Avoidant attachment significantly predicted NSSI (β = .30, p < .001), while maternal reflective functioning again demonstrated a significant negative association with NSSI (β = –.34, p < .001). Importantly, the interaction between avoidant attachment and maternal reflective functioning was statistically significant (β = –.49, p = .046). Although the interaction explained only an additional one percent of the variance (R² increased from .20 to .21), this increase reached statistical significance, indicating a meaningful moderation effect. Specifically, higher maternal reflective functioning weakened the positive association between avoidant attachment and non-suicidal self-injury. Adolescents with elevated avoidant attachment exhibited fewer self-injurious behaviors when their mothers demonstrated stronger reflective functioning than when maternal reflective functioning was low. These findings suggest that maternal reflective functioning may operate as a protective interpersonal resource capable of buffering the detrimental effects of avoidant attachment on adolescents' emotional and behavioral adjustment. However, this protective mechanism did not extend to adolescents with ambivalent attachment, indicating that the developmental pathways underlying different forms of insecure attachment may not be identical and may involve distinct psychological mechanisms requiring further investigation.

Discussion:associated with non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), whereas maternal reflective functioning was negatively associated with NSSI. Furthermore, maternal reflective functioning moderated the relationship between avoidant attachment and NSSI but did not significantly moderate the association between ambivalent attachment and NSSI. These findings underscore the importance of attachment-related processes and parental mentalization in understanding adolescents’ self-injurious behaviors.The positive relationship between insecure attachment and NSSI supports attachment theory, which suggests that early caregiver–child interactions shape emotional regulation and coping strategies throughout development (Bowlby, 1998). Adolescents with insecure attachment are more likely to experience emotional distress and rely on maladaptive coping strategies such as self-injury, consistent with previous findings (Cassels et al., 2019; Ghaderi et al., 2020; Bahali et al., 2024). Likewise, the protective role of maternal reflective functioning is consistent with studies indicating that parents who better understand and respond to their adolescents’ emotional experiences promote emotional security and psychological adjustment (Fonagy et al., 2016; Berthelot et al., 2019; Fiore et al., 2025).The absence of a significant moderating effect for ambivalent attachment suggests that additional individual or family factors may influence this relationship. Overall, the findings support the development of attachment-informed, family-based interventions aimed at strengthening maternal reflective functioning to reduce adolescents’ vulnerability to non-suicidal self-injury.