https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/ Journal of Family Research en daily 1 Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106478.html Objective: To identify indicators of unsuccessful marriage. The method is qualitative using grounded theory and the statistical population includes all couples living in Ardabil who have been living together for at least 3 years. The process of the grounded theory theory is based on a structured approach based on 3 types of open coding20, axial21 and selective22. The statistical population of this study includes all couples living in Ardabil who have at least 3 years of cohabitation. The sampling method was purposive sampling and then theoretical sampling. First, sampling was carried out from the available population, which was described by (Strauss and Corbin23) that the couples selected for inclusion in the study had to have the following criteria: 1) Getting a low score (two standard deviations below the mean) on the scale of positive feelings towards the spouse24 and the Spanier marital adjustment scale25. 2) Based on the interview, describe themselves as unsuccessful couples. In the next step, the final sample group was determined by theoretical sampling. In theoretical sampling, when the system of categories, so-called "theory", is saturated, the process of collecting information stops (MacLeod26, 2001). Finally, 14 couples who described themselves as unsuccessful and scored low (two standard deviations below the mean) on the Spanier Marital Adjustment Questionnaire and the Positive Feelings Towards Spouse Questionnaire were subjected to in-depth semi-structured interviews27. The working process was such that, in compliance with the ethical principles of research and obtaining permission from the interviewees, the interviews were recorded accurately and then transcribed on paper. In this way, the interviewee had relative freedom to express what was in his and his wife's lives, and after each interview, the techniques mentioned by Strauss and Corbin were analyzed line by line and the codes obtained were recorded. After re-analyzing and categorizing the obtained codes, general categories were formed in the researcher's mind, and in the continuation of the interviews, the researcher's goal was to complete and saturate those categories. The interviews continued until the formed categories reached saturation and no new data was obtained regarding those categories. Finally, the following two methods were used to achieve reliability: 1) Control and validation by the sample group: In this method, the recorded interviews were returned to the interviewees for greater assurance to inform the researcher of the accuracy of the information provided. 2) Evaluation by referees: In this method, two experts in this method, as referees, analyzed a part of the interviews and their analyses were compared with the researcher's analyses, and finally a general agreement was reached. Open and axial coding methods were used to analyze the data, and the results of the research showed that the indicators determining unsuccessful marriage cover a wide range. The identified indicators were: individual indicators, non-interaction indicators, indicators related to the family of origin, and cultural indicators. Each of the obtained indicators includes different categories. To collect data in this study, two questionnaires were used, including Spanier's marital adjustment and the questionnaire of positive feelings towards the spouse. Determine the sample, purposive sampling and then theoretical sampling were used. Finally, until theoretical saturation was reached, 14 unsuccessful couples were subjected to in-depth semi-structured interviews and analyzed using the Strauss and Corbin continuous comparative method. The research tools were the Spanier marital adjustment questionnaire and the positive feeling toward spouse questionnaire. Open and axial coding methods were used to analyze the data. This study was conducted with a qualitative approach and based on the grounded theory method. The research population included couples living in Ardabil who had been living together for at least three years. Purposive sampling was used, followed by theoretical sampling. In the screening stage, couples were assessed with two tools: the "Positive Feelings Towards Spouse Questionnaire" and the "Spanier Marital Compatibility Scale," and couples were selected who scored two standard deviations below the mean and described themselves as "unsuccessful couples" in the preliminary interview. The sampling process continued until theoretical saturation, and finally 14 eligible couples participated in the study.This study was conducted with a qualitative approach and based on the grounded theory method. The research population included couples living in Ardabil who had been living together for at least three years. Purposive sampling was used, followed by theoretical sampling. In the screening stage, couples were assessed with two tools: the "Positive Feelings Towards Spouse Questionnaire" and the "Spanier Marital Compatibility Scale," and couples were selected who scored two standard deviations below the mean and described themselves as "unsuccessful couples" in the preliminary interview. The sampling process continued until theoretical saturation, and finally 14 eligible couples participated in the study.Data were collected using in-depth semi-structured interviews. For consistency in questions, a short interview guide was prepared so that the main questions were the same for all participants, but the possibility of asking follow-up questions based on the content of the conversation was provided. The interviews were recorded and fully transcribed with informed consent. Ethical principles, including confidentiality and freedom to participate in the research, were observed.Data analysis was conducted based on the Strauss and Corbin approach and in two stages of open coding and axial coding. Each interview was analyzed line by line immediately after the implementation, and the results were used as the basis for completing the categories and theoretical sampling. To increase reliability, two methods were used: 1. Participant review28: The implemented version of the interview and the initial codes were returned to the participants for approval. 2. Peer review29: Two qualitative method experts independently analyzed part of the data and the results were compared with the researcher's analysis.Screening ToolsAlthough the nature of the research was qualitative, two tools were used only for the purpose of selecting suitable participants: Spanier Marital Adjustment Scale, Positive Feelings Towards Spouse Questionnaire. These tools were not used for quantitative analysis and their role was solely to determine the eligibility of couples to enter the study.Findings: The results of the research showed that the indicators determining unsuccessful marriage cover a wide range. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106587.html Polygyny is a complex and challenging phenomenon in various societies, requiring careful management and specialized skills by polygamous men. This study aims to explore and analyze effective management strategies employed by polygamous men in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, and examines the techniques they use to reduce familial tensions and maintain balance in spousal relationships. The research adopts a qualitative approach using thematic analysis. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with 27 polygamous men who had been in a plural marriage for at least five years.The findings reveal that the management strategies of polygamous men can be categorized into four main themes: authority and control, family cohesion, ethical conduct, and resilience patterns. The results indicate that ensuring fairness in the distribution of financial resources and equitable treatment among wives directly reduces conflicts and enhances family satisfaction. Additionally, adherence to ethical values such as honesty, consultation, and fairness plays a key role in strengthening solidarity and stability in polygamous families. Some men drew on the experiences of predecessors to mitigate conflicts and establish balance, striving to avoid past mistakes. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106658.html Introduction: Immigration, as a challenging socio-psychological phenomenon, has garnered increasing attention from researchers in recent years (Tylan & Weber, 2023). This life-altering process can cause numerous harms to the family system (Arabzadeh Behri, 2023). Canada, as one of the primary destinations for Iranian immigrants (Salavati, 2021) and one of the most immigrant-accepting countries in the world (Statistics Canada, 2022), provides a setting for studying these challenges. Although immigration can have positive consequences, such as increased independence or improved marital intimacy (Hyman et al., 2008), evidence suggests that it is associated with profound stressors that can reduce marital satisfaction (Eshghi 2023) and transform family dynamics (Aika et al., 2018). Challenges such as cultural incompatibility (Astinfeshan, 2024; Ziaian et al., 2023), economic and occupational issues (Fakhari et al., 2023), concerns about child rearing (Milewski, 2023), and the disruption of social support networks (Guruge et al., 2010) place strain on the relationships of immigrant couples. Despite these issues, a clear research gap was felt regarding a comprehensive analysis of family harms experienced by Iranian couples in the context of immigration to Canada. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to answer the fundamental question: What are the family harms faced by Iranian couples after immigrating to Canada?Methodology: This research employed a qualitative approach with thematic analysis. The analysis framework was Braun and Clarke's (2021) six-phase model: familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final report. The statistical population consisted of all Iranian couples who had immigrated to Canada and had at least 1 year of residency. Sampling was done purposively (criterion-based) and through virtual networks of Iranians residing in Canada. Inclusion criteria were both partners being of Iranian origin, at least 1 year since immigration, at least 2 years of marriage, informed consent, age range of 25 to 60 years, a minimum of a high school diploma, no history of psychiatric illness or divorce, and legal entry into Canada. The data were collected through semi-structured in-depth (online) interviews, which were conducted with 15 couples and continued until theoretical saturation was attained. Validation of the findings was conducted through participant review and auditing by family experts. Ethical considerations of the research comprised informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw from the research.Findings: Data analysis yielded 118 primary codes, 22 sub-themes, and eight main themes. Demographic characteristics indicated that the research samples mainly included young/middle-aged couples (30-53 years old), with higher education (mostly Master's degrees), residing in the country for two to five years, and often holding student visas. The main themes and sub-themes were as follows:1. Psychological Issues and Problems Related to Family: Including incompatibility with fundamental life changes, a deep sense of loneliness (especially in crises), increased anxiety and systemic stress, decreased tolerance and irritability in family interactions, and feelings of guilt resulting from the inability to support the family of origin.2. Marital Issues and Problems: Consisting of a relative increase in marital conflicts, a decrease in the quantity and quality of time spent together, the prominence of poor communication skills in the absence of a prior support network, and, in some cases, forced independence in addressing the relationship, which was an opportunity for some and a threat for others.3. Social Communication Challenges: With the components of "challenges in using the language" (beyond a practical obstacle and damaging to self-esteem) and "feelings of social insecurity" (bias in interpreting the behavior of others as discrimination).4. Occupational Issues Damaging to the Family: Including perceived job discrimination (feeling rejected based on prior identity) and job demotion (experiencing complex grief and identity conflict resulting from the loss of social position).5. Economic Damages to the Family: Consisting of difficult financial planning (starting over from scratch and losing symbolic assets) and difficult and costly housing provision (a structural barrier to feeling stable and settled).6. Educational Damages to Children in the Family: Including excessive government support for children (perceived confiscation of the parental relationship and authority, creating fear) and the continuous threat of changing values and educational concerns (normative conflict with the culture of the country of origin).7. Cultural Incompatibility Damaging to the Family System: With the sub-components of social alienation in a multicultural society and culture shock (loss of a familiar meaning system for interpreting behaviors).8. Strict and Rigid Laws Limiting the Family: including strictness in marital relationships (legal intervention in disputes and violation of privacy), the possibility of being harmed by strict laws (feelings of insecurity and fear of unintended consequences), and the perception of reverse discrimination and inversion of family hierarchies (feelings of systematic victimization of men and reverse prioritization of the law).Conclusion: The findings indicate that the immigration of Iranian couples to Canada poses profound and interconnected challenges to the family system in psychological, communicational, economic, cultural, and legal dimensions. These challenges extend beyond individual issues and affect family dynamics systematically. The findings of this research are consistent with the results of previous studies, such as Aran et al. (2023) on feelings of loneliness Bulut et al. (2024) on psychological burnout, Tam & Grimes (2023) on the exacerbation of conflicts, and research on job discrimination and the economic challenges of immigrants. The final conclusion suggests that the lack of planning, training, and systematic support exacerbates these harms. Therefore, the design and implementation of comprehensive intervention programs before and after immigration, focusing on strengthening individual and family resilience, intercultural and communication skills training, and legal awareness, are undeniable necessities to reduce structural harms and promote the cohesion of immigrant families. One limitation of the research is the prevalence of samples with student visas, which makes generalizing to all immigrants rather tough. Future researchers are recommended to consider more diverse samples by type of residence and to conduct comparative studies across different immigrant-receiving countries. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106473.html According to object relation theories, a person builds an internal pattern based on his relations with primary objects, which guides his current relations. In this way, unresolved psychological conflicts with the main family continue to manifest in the future intimate relations. Aimed to investigate the mechanism of this transgender transition, this study has examined the mediating role of anger rumination in the relationship between parent-child conflict resolution tactics and couples' communication patterns. The research method was descriptive-correlation. The sample of 300 married adult (49.5% women) filled three scales of Strauss's parent-child conflict resolution tactics, Christensen's and Sulaway's couple communication patterns, and Sokhodolosky's rumination. Data analysis using path analysis confirmed the mediating role of anger rumination in the relationship between parent-child conflict resolution tactics and couples' communication patterns. There is a positive and significant relationship between parents' aggression and the amount of children's rumination and the use of incompatible communication patterns in relation to their emotional partners, as well as between the amount of children's rumination and the choice of these incompatible communication patterns. Therefore, the use of aggressive conflict resolution tactics by parents increases the probability of creating Rumination in children increases the possibility of them using unhealthy communication patterns. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106540.html The family serves as the cornerstone of societal mental health, and the marital relationship is its fundamental pillar, playing an undeniable role in individual and social equilibrium. Studies in Iran indicate that over 30% of employed women experience moderate to severe levels of marital conflict. These unresolved conflicts manifest themselves through maladaptive emotion regulation and communication strategies. Two of the most significant of these maladaptive mechanisms are experiential avoidance and nonverbal aggression. Experiential avoidance refers to the conscious effort to escape confronting unpleasant thoughts, feelings, and memories. In the context of a stressful marital relationship, employed women may frequently postpone negative emotions (such as resentment over inequitable division of labor) to avoid more draining conflicts and conserve their limited energy. Although this strategy may seem calming in the short term, in the long run it leads to the accumulation of a vast reservoir of unresolved dissatisfaction and the creation of emotional distance. This accumulation of unexpressed emotion often finds another outlet: nonverbal aggression. This type of aggression involves purposeful, harmful behaviors without the use of words, such as hostile glances, contemptuous silence, sarcasm through tone, and body language. Due to its indirect and often deniable nature, identifying and managing these behaviors is more difficult and can inflict deeper damage on the foundation of trust and intimacy in the relationship. For stressed employed women, nonverbal aggression may serve as a less costly strategy (in terms of emotional energy) for expressing anger and frustration.Various psychological therapies have been developed to intervene in marital conflicts. Two prominent evidence-based approaches are Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy (EFT) and Solution-Focused Couple Therapy (SFBT). Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy, founded by Sue Johnson, is based on attachment theory. By creating an emotionally safe space, it helps couples identify and express the primary and vulnerable underlying emotions of conflicts (such as fear of rejection and loneliness). In contrast, Solution-Focused Couple Therapy, rooted in the work of Steve de Shazer, focuses on discovering exceptions (times when the problem is absent), strengthening existing strengths within the couple, and constructing tangible, future-oriented solutions. This study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test, post-test, follow-up, and a control group. The statistical population consisted of employed women with marital conflict complaints who referred to counseling centers in Mashhad in the years 2024-2025. From eligible volunteers (having at least a high school diploma, marriage duration over two years, high marital conflict score, and spouse's willingness to participate), 24 individuals were selected via purposive sampling and randomly assigned to three groups of eight. The research instruments were: Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire: Comprising 7 items on a 7-point Likert scale. A higher score indicates greater avoidance and less psychological flexibility. Its reliability and validity have been confirmed in Iranian studies. Buss and Perry Aggression Questionnaire: Comprising 29 items on a 5-point Likert scale, measuring various aggression subscales, including nonverbal dimensions. A higher total score indicates a higher level of aggression. Its psychometrics have been reported as favorable in Iran.These questionnaires were administered at three stages: pre-test, post-test (immediately after therapy), and follow-up (two months after post-test) to all groups. Therapy sessions were conducted weekly, individually for each couple with both spouses present, by trained and supervised therapists.Results from Multivariate Analysis of Covariance indicated the following:Overall Effectiveness: Both Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy and Solution-Focused Couple Therapy interventions led to a significant reduction in scores of experiential avoidance and nonverbal aggression compared to the control group at the post-test stage (p < .01).The reductions achieved in both variables were maintained at the two-month follow-up stage, and no significant difference was observed between post-test and follow-up scores. This indicates the stability of changes created by both therapies.The implemented interventions were responsible for explaining 52% of the variance in the post-test scores of the dependent variables, indicating a large and significant effect size.Although both methods were effective, they demonstrated distinct patterns of effectiveness.Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy operates primarily through securing the emotional environment of the relationship. By helping couples identify their "negative interactional cycle" (e.g., pursue/withdraw), where nonverbal aggression and silence are used as weapons, EFT assists each partner in discovering and expressing the vulnerable primary emotions (e.g., fear of rejection, loneliness) hidden beneath anger and avoidance. When these deep emotions are heard and accepted, the need for avoidance and resorting to indirect aggression is fundamentally diminished. EFT often views anger as a "secondary emotion" and, by facilitating contact with the underlying primary emotions (vulnerability), dismantles the emotional foundation of aggressive behavior. This deep, attachment-related process explains its stronger impact on reducing experiential avoidance.Solution-Focused Couple Therapy works through shifting the focus of attention and enhancing self-efficacy. Using questions like the "miracle question," this approach redirects the couple's attention from problems and negative emotions (the fuel for avoidance and aggression) toward exceptions (times when the problem was absent) and a vision of a desired future. This cognitive shift increases hope and reminds couples that they already possess resources and abilities for conflict management. By prescribing small, achievable tasks, SFBT disrupts old behavioral patterns and creates a positive cycle of small successes. The sense of competence stemming from these successes replaces feelings of helplessness, and the inclination to use destructive behaviors (like nonverbal aggression) for self-expression or control decreases. This focus on action and tangible behavioral change may be the reason for the quicker reduction in nonverbal aggression observed in this group. This research demonstrated that both the Solution-Focused Couple Therapy and Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy models are effective tools for assisting employed women experiencing marital conflict and can lead to a reduction in emotional avoidance and destructive communication behaviors like nonverbal aggression. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106682.html This study aimed to explore the lived experiences of couples who, after initiating divorce, decided to return to and continue their marital life. With the increasing prevalence of divorce and the critical importance of achieving sustainable marital reconciliation, this research sought to identify the processes, mechanisms, and personal and relational factors that facilitate the reconstruction of marital relationships.A descriptive phenomenological approach was employed to capture the depth and richness of participants’ experiences. The study involved 12 married individuals (9 women and 3 men) who, after withdrawing their divorce request and having lived together for at least one year, met the criteria for sustainable marital reconciliation. Data were collected through semi-structured in-depth interviews, providing participants the opportunity to narrate their experiences freely, and were analyzed using Colaizzi’s method. Analysis yielded 317 open codes, 105 initial concepts, 17 sub-themes, and four main themes: (1) “Asymmetric will to preserve the marital life,” (2) “Acceptance and reconsideration by the hesitant spouse,” (3) “Mutual efforts of couples to restore the relationship,” and (4) “Consolidation of marital reconciliation and continuous care of the relationship.”The first theme, asymmetric will to preserve marital life, revealed that in most cases, one partner initially sought divorce due to repeated frustrations and perceived relational failure, while the other partner, guided by a sense of responsibility, personal determination, and value-based motivation, actively engaged in preserving the marriage. Participants described persistent efforts to restore the relationship, demonstrating unwavering hope, testing all available options, and resisting despair. Emotional commitment, belief in the possibility of repair, and reliance on ethical and spiritual values such as patience, forgiveness, and faith were essential for sustaining these efforts. One participant shared, “I was the only one who truly wanted the life back. If someone genuinely wants to return from the heart, they can find a way.” Another emphasized, “All the paths I tried failed, yet I never gave up because I believed there was a solution.”The second theme, acceptance and reconsideration by the hesitant spouse, highlighted the gradual process through which the initially divorce-seeking partner began to reconsider their decision. Honest communication, persistent encouragement, and consistent positive behaviors from the determined partner fostered trust and created an opportunity for reevaluation. Temporary separation, family support, and recognition of residual emotional attachment further facilitated this process. One participant noted, “My spouse’s persistence and honesty gradually convinced me to reconsider. I felt secure and realized this time the intentions were genuine.” The findings demonstrate that the hesitant partner’s internal reflection and emotional connection were critical in shifting attitudes toward relationship restoration.The third theme, mutual efforts to restore a tense and deteriorating relationship, encompassed both partners’ active engagement in identifying their own contributions to conflict, adopting personal responsibility, and pursuing self-improvement. Participants reported heightened self-awareness, modification of maladaptive behaviors, and focused efforts on constructive problem-solving rather than blaming each other. This stage included collaboration in attending counseling, building trust, adjusting relational power dynamics, and consistently demonstrating supportive behaviors. Couples emphasized small yet meaningful actions, attentive listening, and responsiveness to each other’s emotional needs. One participant reflected, “I realized I had been trying to change my spouse, but the real change had to start with me. Accepting my own shortcomings helped me respect our differences.”The fourth theme, consolidation of marital reconciliation and continuous care of the relationship, illustrated that sustaining a recovered relationship requires ongoing effort, attention, and strategic relational management. Couples engaged in behaviors to enhance intimacy, such as sharing emotions, spending quality time together, expressing affection verbally and nonverbally, and practicing humor and recreational activities. Commitment to the marital relationship, including mutual responsibility toward children, family well-being, and societal obligations, was reinforced. Participants also highlighted the significance of setting boundaries with extended family, repairing parent-child relationships, and ensuring a safe and loving environment for children. In addition, attention to personal growth and development, including pursuing education, hobbies, or personal goals, contributed to maintaining balance and satisfaction within the marriage. Participants described a continuous awareness of relational needs, proactive communication, conflict prevention strategies, and reliance on spiritual beliefs to sustain commitment. One participant explained, “Every small effort, every kind word, and shared experience strengthens our bond. We actively plan to keep our relationship warm and resilient.”The findings suggest that achieving sustainable marital reconciliation is a gradual, multidimensional, and dynamic process. It requires a combination of individual determination, attitudinal change, mutual engagement, enhanced communication skills, and reliance on personal, relational, and spiritual values. The process is not linear; couples experience cycles of challenge and recovery, requiring persistence, patience, and adaptive strategies. This study highlights that reconciliation is not merely the resumption of cohabitation but the intentional reconstruction of trust, intimacy, and shared life goals, allowing the marital relationship to thrive despite previous adversities.In conclusion, sustainable marital reconciliation involves a complex interplay of psychological, relational, and ethical factors. Interventions aimed at supporting couples in crisis should emphasize fostering hope, encouraging ethical and spiritual engagement, promoting self-awareness, and building effective communication and problem-solving skills. This study provides a phenomenological insight into the lived experiences of couples who successfully navigated the crisis of divorce and achieved a lasting, harmonious marital life, offering valuable guidance for practitioners, counselors, and policymakers interested in promoting marital stability and relational well-being. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106479.html The institution of the family is one of the most sacred and valuable social institutions that has been examined from various aspects and experts in various sciences such as psychology, sociology, educational sciences and branches of Islamic sciences such as ethics, jurisprudence, Quran and hadith. Family issues have been researched by its characteristics, a healthy family is exposed to various pests, and knowing these damages has a significant effect on consolidating and strengthening the foundation of the family. Considering the rapid growth of new technologies and its impact on a healthy family, it is necessary to analyze the various topics and propositions of this emerging phenomenon. This research was carried out with the descriptive-analytical method, with the aim of diagnosing the role of modern technologies in family relationships based on Islamic teachings. The pathology of family relationships affected by modern technologies based on the teachings of the Islamic religion has not been studied in an independent work, which indicates the necessity of research on this issue. From a pathological point of view, new technologies can lead to damages such as increasing the distance between family members, reducing the focus on religious values, increasing tensions and family disputes in the family, https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106665.html Introduction: Family-school partnership, as a complex and multi-dimensional process, is recognized as one of the key factors in enhancing the quality of education and students' academic success (Hill & Tyson, 2017; Jeynes, 2016; Wang & Sheikh-Khalil, 2017). This partnership, which goes beyond the physical presence of parents, involves intricate interactions that influence the beliefs and behaviors of the participants (Fan & Chen, 2018) and its dimensions have been defined in areas such as decision-making, educational support at home, and interaction with teachers (Epstein, 2018). This complexity manifests in specific cultural and social contexts, such as the rural communities of kurdistan, iran, which are the site of unique interactions. In this regard, Wei and Ni (2023) found that in rural communities, family-school partnership is rooted in deep-seated cultural beliefs, social norms, and family values. The gap in the existing literature is multifaceted; a significant portion of research has focused on urban communities, has predominantly utilized quantitative approaches, and has overlooked strategic dimensions of partnership such as participation in decision-making (Jeynes, 2016; Fan & Chen, 2018). These gaps are more pronounced in Kurdish society due to its specific socio-cultural context and the influence of school management styles (Ahmadi & Abdolmaleki, 2012). Therefore, a deep understanding of the lived experiences of participants is essential for designing indigenous and operational strategies. Consequently, the present study was conducted with the aim of analyzing the lived experiences of parents and school principals in rural Kurdistan, identifying facilitating and inhibiting factors, examining the commonalities and differences in their perspectives, and presenting an indigenous model of these interactions. Accordingly, the research questions are formulated as follows:Main Research Question:What are the dimensions of the lived experiences of parents and school principals regarding family-school interactions in the rural communities of Iranian Kurdistan?Sub-Questions:1. What facilitating and inhibiting factors of these interactions are perceived by parents and school principals?2. What are the key commonalities and differences in the lived experiences of parents and school principals?3. Based on the research findings, how can an appropriate indigenous model for family-school interactions be formulated for the rural communities of kurdistan, iran?Methodology: In terms of purpose, this research was applied, and regarding approach, it was qualitative. Given the research objective, which was to gain an in-depth understanding of the lived experience of family-school interactions from the perspective of parents and principals in rural areas, the phenomenological method was employed. This study was conducted within the geographical boundaries of Kurdistan Province. The temporal scope of the research spanned the years (2023-2024). The study population consisted of school principals and parents of students in elementary and multi-grade rural schools in Kurdistan province, who were selected as participants through purposive criterion sampling. Data were collected using in-depth interviews; in total, interviews were conducted with 32 principals and 30 parents until Data saturation was achieved. Data were analyzed using the seven-step framework proposed by Dahlgren and Johansson (2009). To ensure the trustworthiness of the research, peer debriefing and independent analysis by researchers were utilized.Results: After analyzing the interviews, a total of 114 codes were extracted; 71 codes pertained to the lived experiences of principals and 43 codes pertained to the lived experiences of parents regarding family-school interactions. Five overarching themes were identified: the importance of time, access and information exchange, cultural-social attitudes and beliefs, the quality and nature of communication, and support and backing. The lived experiences of principals and parents regarding interactions were categorized into facilitating and inhibiting factors. It is noteworthy that the commonalities and differences in the lived experiences of principals and parents indicate that both groups identified five main areas as the cornerstone of family-school interactions. This commonality signifies their shared understanding of the importance of "time, access and information exchange, cultural-social attitudes and beliefs, the quality and nature of communication, and support and backing." The difference in their experiences and perspectives lies not in the topics themselves, but in their angle of view. However, the primary difference in experiences and perspectives is not in the "what," but in the "how"-how each group views and interprets the interactions.Conclusion: The findings confirm that although both parents and principals referred to the five main themes of the research-the importance of time, access and information exchange, cultural-social attitudes and beliefs, the quality and nature of communication, and support and backing-their perspectives were entirely different. Principals view issues from a systemic and service-provider standpoint, emphasizing flexible planning and formal structures, whereas parents perceive their lived experiences from the position of a participant, emphasizing individual preoccupations, the need for easy access, and feelings of inadequacy. To bridge this gap, this study proposes an indigenous model emphasizing three core features: 1) the prominence of informal and verbal relationships over formal structures to overcome distrust, 2) the intertwining of family and school relationships to transform the connection from a service provider-recipient dynamic into a social collaboration, and 3) the pivotal role of local teachers as trust mediators to translate the formal language of the school into the cultural language of families. This model does not challenge Western theories such as Epstein's framework but rather provides a localized and critical update, demonstrating that in this context, the "how" of interaction is more important than the "what" of interaction. Ultimately, this research suggests that solutions copied from Western models-such as designing complex notification systems or holding formal meetings-are likely to fail. Effective strategies, which must be extracted from within the culture itself to form meaningful and sustainable interactions, include: holding mobile and seasonal meetings at appropriate times in central village locations, installing noticeboards in village centers, introducing a local teacher as a trusted informant, utilizing cultural peer modeling instead of one-way lectures, regular face-to-face visits by principals to the villages, and engaging parents in school projects based on their indigenous skills. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106477.html The present study aimed to examine the role of academic emotions in predicting academic engagement, with a particular focus on the mediating effect of family communication patterns within the educational process. Academic engagement has consistently been recognized as a pivotal determinant of academic achievement, learning motivation, and long-term educational outcomes. While previous research has documented the significance of student engagement for academic success, the mechanisms through which emotional experiences translate into engagement behaviors remain insufficiently understood. Drawing upon theoretical frameworks in educational psychology, positive psychology, and family systems theory, this study sought to elucidate how both positive and negative academic emotions contribute directly and indirectly to student engagement, and the extent to which family communication patterns serve as a mediating factor.The study employed a descriptive-correlational design. The target population consisted of high school students enrolled in the second stage of secondary education in Tehran during the 2024–2025 academic year. Utilizing a multi-stage cluster random sampling procedure, 280 students were initially selected, of whom 251 completed the questionnaires, providing a robust dataset for statistical analysis. Data collection instruments included the Academic Emotions Questionnaire developed by Pekrun and colleagues (2005), the Family Communication Patterns Questionnaire by Koerner and Fitzpatrick (2002), and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for Students adapted by Carmona-Halty and colleagues (2019). These measures have consistently demonstrated strong psychometric properties, ensuring both reliability and validity in capturing the constructs of interest.Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to evaluate the proposed conceptual framework and examine both direct and indirect pathways. The analysis revealed that positive academic emotions exert a significant direct effect on academic engagement (β = 0.080, p > 0.04), whereas negative academic emotions also demonstrated a significant direct effect (β = -0.339, p < 0.0005). Additionally, positive academic emotions displayed a significant indirect effect on academic engagement (β = 0.031, p < 0.05), and negative academic emotions similarly exerted a significant indirect effect (β = -0.189, p < 0.0005). These findings indicate that family communication patterns partially mediate the relationship between academic emotions and engagement, highlighting the crucial role of familial dynamics in shaping educational behaviors.The results underscore the multifaceted and dynamic nature of academic emotions. Positive emotions, including enjoyment, pride, and hope, function as motivational resources that broaden students’ cognitive and behavioral repertoires, fostering persistence, self-regulated learning strategies, and adaptive coping mechanisms. They enhance intrinsic motivation, encourage active participation in classroom activities, and strengthen commitment to academic goals. In contrast, negative academic emotions, such as anxiety, frustration, and shame, can narrow attention, heighten perceived threats of failure, reduce motivation, and promote disengagement, unless adequately moderated by supportive family environments. The mediating effect of family communication patterns suggests that families play a critical role in either amplifying or buffering the impact of these emotional experiences. Constructive communication patterns, characterized by openness, responsiveness, and emotional support, help students regulate their emotions effectively, sustain engagement, and navigate academic challenges with resilience. Conversely, controlling, conflict-laden, or punitive communication styles exacerbate the adverse effects of negative emotions, potentially leading to avoidance, reduced participation, and diminished academic performance.From a practical standpoint, these findings provide important implications for educators, policymakers, and families. First, interventions aimed at enhancing positive academic emotions, such as enjoyment and pride, and equipping students with emotional regulation strategies, can directly and indirectly foster engagement and learning outcomes. Second, family-centered programs promoting effective communication, emotional attunement, collaborative problem-solving, and support for autonomy can serve as pivotal mechanisms to strengthen engagement and mitigate the detrimental effects of negative emotions. Integrating interventions that target both individual emotional competencies and family relational dynamics provides a comprehensive approach to enhancing academic engagement, motivation, and achievement.In addition to practical implications, the study contributes to theoretical advancements in understanding the interplay between affective experiences, family dynamics, and engagement outcomes. By empirically demonstrating both the direct and indirect pathways through which academic emotions influence engagement, this research reinforces the importance of considering contextual and relational factors, rather than focusing solely on individual student traits. Moreover, the findings highlight the necessity of promoting emotionally supportive environments within families and schools, particularly in culturally diverse educational contexts, to optimize students’ engagement, motivation, and well-being.In conclusion, the current study illuminates the critical role of academic emotions in shaping students’ engagement, emphasizing the mediating influence of family communication patterns. Positive and negative emotions exert distinct yet interconnected effects on engagement, and family interactions serve as a key mechanism in translating these emotional experiences into behavioral outcomes. Future research is encouraged to replicate these findings across diverse educational levels and cultural contexts, employ longitudinal designs to assess causal pathways, and explore additional familial and contextual moderators that may further elucidate the dynamics of academic emotions and engagement. Collectively, these insights underscore the value of addressing both emotional and familial dimensions in educational practice, fostering sustained academic engagement, and promoting student success in an increasingly complex learning environment. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106500.html The aim of this research was to present a a structural model of life orientation based on the child's perception of the child's parent relationship, with the mediating role of inner self-narratives of girls in the second year of high school in Qom. The present study was a descriptive-correlation type of path analysis. The population of study included all female students of the second year of secondary school in Qom (16833 people) in the academic year of 2023-2024. The statistical sample size was determined to be 220 people, which was done by random cluster sampling. The instruments used were Perception Of Parents Scale Grolink (POPS), Life Orientation Test (LOT) and Calvete Self-Talk Inventory scale (STI). All analyzes were performed using SPSS-19 and AMOS-24 software. According to the findings of the research model, interaction with father and interaction with mother had a positive and direct effect on optimistic perception and positive self-talk and a negative and direct effect on pessimistic perception and negative self-talk. Positive self-talk and negative self-talk had a significant positive and negative effect on and positive self-talk and negative self-talk had a significant negative and positive effect on pessimism, respectively. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106548.html Studying the role of social discourses in the family trust of teenagersMusa Shahnoui, Dr. Kausar Dehdest, Dr. Masoume EsmailiAbstractThe present study was conducted with the aim of studying the role of social discourses in adolescent family trust. This study is a qualitative study that used the phenomenological method to collect and analyze data. For this purpose, semi-structured interviews were used to collect the opinions of the participants in the study. The study population of this study was adolescents in Nikshahr, Sistan and Baluchestan Province, who are between the ages of 12 and 18. The statistical sample was selected from among them in a purposeful and accessible manner. After conducting 23 interviews with them, theoretical saturation was achieved and the process was stopped. Analysis of the collected data resulted in the identification of 16 sub-themes, five main themes, and one core theme. The main theme of trust breakdown was analyzed in the emotional dimension, and the feedback received included the sub-themes of hopelessness discourse, value discourse conditional on education, and the discourse of no one. It can be admitted that the emotional dimension of the break is rooted in dependence and disappointment in those around them and the world around them, pursuing academic issues and problems alone, feeling rejected by others, etc. The main theme of the trust break in the supervisory dimension was analyzed, and the feedback received included the sub-themes of the discourse of emancipation, the discourse of being under control, and the discourse of personal lifestyle choice. Those who have signs of the trust break in the supervisory dimension in adolescence do not fully use their abilities to learn and perform in social discourses. Parents and those around these individuals should make more effort than others and shape their supervisory scope over their performance more flexibly and friendly in order to improve the level of trust of the individual. The main theme of the trust break in the family upbringing patterns was analyzed, and the feedback received included the sub-themes of the discourse of discrimination, the discourse of being compared and judged, and the discourse of not being respected. Discrimination and judging children were among the factors that had a significant impact on their level of trust. Comparing children with each other creates a situation in which children feel insecure and try to distance themselves from their parents and society to escape such an unpleasant situation. The consequences of this issue will accompany children in the future and provide the basis for the emergence of larger behavioral problems such as social anxiety in them. However, these adolescents are not guided and empowered in mental and academic fields in environments lacking written motivational programs and in unstable mental conditions. Despite having talent and ability in the long term, religious teachings will suffer from a breakdown in trust in the aspect of family models due to the lack of a scientific model that sees all these matters in front of them, which leads to a decline in the impact of social discourses and, as a result, the individual's trust. Meanwhile, some students easily surrender in order to trust those around them, while others refuse to be students. For this purpose, it is recommended that schools and teachers adopt a learner/student-centered educational method to cultivate in them a sense of being strong and getting better along with practice and effort, so that we can institutionalize trust and loving coexistence with the family for them through the method. The breakdown of trust in the freedom and choice dimension is rooted in the lack of desire and enthusiasm in doing things. And in the meantime, lack of perseverance and procrastination have a high impact on reducing it, and attachment to others through negative emotions leads to a decrease in their level of trust. The main theme of the breakdown of trust in the freedom and choice dimension was analyzed, and the feedback received included the sub-themes of the discourse of individualism in personal decision-making, the discourse of not listening, and the discourse of the generation gap between children and parents, and the discourse of lack of companionship and guidance. The main theme of trust breakdown was analyzed in the dimension of communication ties, and the feedback received included the sub-themes of discourse of being different from each other, discourse of not being accepted, and discourse of being conflicting. The findings of this study can be fruitful for both parents and education administrators and officials in educating and restoring adolescents' trust.Keywords: social discourses, adolescent family trust, phenomenological method https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106588.html "Right" has a main role as an element guaranteeing the preferences of human beings in the field of belonging and in the context of the value equality of intersex people with the other two models, female and male. In the meantime, the serious mission of guaranteeing the right to motherhood of intersex mothers has been burdened on the shoulders of politically organized societies that are accused with violating the fundamental rights of intersex mothers such as self-determination and unwarranted medical interventions as examples of clear human rights violations. This article seeks to present an analytical and interdisciplinary study to examine the concerns of this group of mothers, for whom chromosomal biology has given them such an option, and to remind the point that the concept of motherhood And the specifics related to this role depend more than anything on understanding the concept of identity and identifying the in-between situation as a "different" and not "disordered" situation, in which case intersex mothers who are in an unequal situation in the realm of their in-between lives this time they can hug their children in the safe space of the right to motherhood. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106692.html Motherhood represents one of the most profound developmental transitions in a woman’s life. Beyond the joy and emotional fulfillment that accompany raising a child, it also introduces complex psychological, emotional, and social challenges that may disrupt a woman’s mental equilibrium. The early years of parenting, particularly when a child is between one and three years old, are characterized by significant changes in identity, roles, and interpersonal dynamics. These changes often expose mothers to increased levels of stress, fatigue, and emotional isolation. Recent empirical studies have shown that loneliness is one of the most frequently reported emotional difficulties among mothers of toddlers, often leading to lower marital satisfaction, parental burnout, and heightened psychological distress (Beasley et al., 2022; Arimoto & Tadaka, 2021). From a theoretical standpoint, Bowlby’s attachment theory (1988) provides a robust framework for understanding how early-life attachment experiences shape adult emotional and relational functioning. According to this theory, early interactions with primary caregivers create internal working models that influence expectations, behaviors, and emotions in close relationships across the lifespan. Individuals with secure attachment typically experience greater emotional stability and social connectedness, whereas those with insecure attachment styles—avoidant or ambivalent—tend to exhibit emotional dysregulation, fear of intimacy, or dependency on others for emotional reassurance (Cassidy & Shaver, 2016). These maladaptive attachment patterns have been strongly linked to feelings of loneliness and relational dissatisfaction in adulthood (Shorter et al., 2022). In cultural contexts such as Iran, where the family unit is considered the central emotional and social structure, the role of mothers extends beyond caregiving to encompass emotional regulation within the household. Mothers are often expected to maintain harmony, provide psychological stability, and nurture both children and spouses (Hemati-Alamdarloo et al., 2017). However, these societal expectations can also heighten pressure and amplify feelings of inadequacy or isolation, especially when mothers lack emotional or marital support. Therefore, it is essential to examine the mechanisms through which attachment patterns influence emotional well-being—specifically, how marital self-efficacy and emotion regulation serve as mediating factors between attachment styles and perceived loneliness among Iranian mothers of toddlers. Methods: This study employed a descriptive-correlational design within the framework of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test a theoretically grounded mediation model. The statistical population comprised mothers of toddlers (aged 1–3 years) residing in Tehran during 2024. Using a convenience sampling method, 330 participants were recruited. Inclusion criteria required participants to be married, the biological mother of a child within the specified age range, and willing to provide informed consent. The study utilized four validated instruments: Adult Attachment Scale (AAS; Collins & Read, 1990) – to measure secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment dimensions. Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA-S; DiTommaso et al., 2004) – assessing romantic, family, and social loneliness. Marital Self-Efficacy Scale (MSES; Lopez et al., 2007) – evaluating perceived competence in managing marital relationships. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross & John, 2003) – measuring cognitive reappraisal and emotional suppression strategies. All instruments were administered in their validated Persian versions. The reliability of each scale exceeded acceptable thresholds (Cronbach’s α > 0.70). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS-25 and AMOS-24 software. The model’s overall fit was evaluated using indices such as CFI (0.93), GFI (0.92), IFI (0.93), and RMSEA (0.07), all of which indicated satisfactory goodness of fit. Findings: Descriptive statistics revealed that insecure attachment styles, particularly ambivalent and avoidant, were more prevalent among the participants than secure attachment. The mean level of loneliness was moderately high, suggesting that many mothers experience emotional and social isolation despite being in family settings. Correlational analyses demonstrated that both avoidant and ambivalent attachment styles were positively correlated with loneliness, while secure attachment showed a negative correlation. Results from SEM confirmed the mediating role of marital self-efficacy and emotion regulation. Specifically, ambivalent attachment indirectly predicted higher levels of loneliness through reduced marital self-efficacy and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies (β = 0.13, p < 0.05). Neither avoidant nor secure attachment styles showed significant direct effects on loneliness. However, emotion regulation had a positive and significant impact on marital self-efficacy (β = 0.14, p < 0.05), indicating that mothers who are better able to manage their emotions tend to perceive themselves as more competent within their marital relationships. In turn, marital self-efficacy had a strong negative effect on loneliness (β = –0.81, p < 0.001). These findings collectively suggest that emotional and relational competencies serve as critical buffers against loneliness in mothers of young children. Conclusion: The results of this study contribute to a growing body of literature emphasizing the interplay between attachment, emotional regulation, and marital functioning in shaping psychological well-being among mothers. The findings indicate that mothers’ perceptions of loneliness are not solely determined by attachment style but also by their confidence in managing emotional and marital challenges. Specifically, mothers with ambivalent attachment may experience heightened dependency, fear of rejection, and emotional instability, leading to reduced marital self-efficacy and greater loneliness—even when surrounded by family or social networks. Conversely, mothers who possess stronger emotion regulation skills and greater confidence in their marital roles are more likely to maintain emotional balance and feel connected within their relationships. From a clinical and cultural perspective, these findings underscore the necessity of designing culturally sensitive interventions in Iran that target both emotional and relational domains. Psychologists and family counselors can incorporate emotion regulation training, mindfulness-based programs, and couple therapy to enhance mothers’ self-efficacy and reduce emotional distress. Educational workshops focusing on cognitive reappraisal, communication skills, and emotional expression may also empower mothers to navigate the psychological demands of early parenting. In summary, this study provides empirical evidence that marital self-efficacy and emotion regulation act as mediating mechanisms linking attachment styles to loneliness among mothers of toddlers. Enhancing these psychological capacities can protect mothers from emotional exhaustion and contribute to healthier family dynamics. The results hold valuable implications for preventive interventions, clinical counseling, and future longitudinal studies aiming to deepen our understanding of emotional adaptation in motherhood. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106694.html Introduction Marriage, as the most fundamental human relationship, shapes the process of psychological and familial development through constructive interactions (Mohagheghi & Roshanaei, 2023). However, contemporary couples often face challenges in establishing communication and achieving marital satisfaction (Ramzanifar et al., 2021). Significant threats to marital fidelity and bond include marital infidelity and emotional divorce (Mohagheghi & Roshanaei, 2022). Marital infidelity, as a common and damaging event, leads to individual consequences (such as depression and reduced self-esteem) and familial ones (such as divorce and weakened parenting) (Sharifi et al., 2024; Shackelford, 2003). Emotional divorce, also known as "silent divorce," refers to living under the same roof with emotional distance and is considered a painful social phenomenon (Omidpour et al., 2024; Rashidi et al., 2022). Research indicates that several psychological factors can play a role in the tendency towards these harms. Among these factors is sexual self-efficacy (one's belief in their sexual performance), which has a significant relationship with marital satisfaction (Zare Derakhshan & Roshan Chesli, 2020). Another factor is love trauma, which refers to the set of severe symptoms following the collapse of a romantic relationship and can impair an individual's functioning (Rosse, 1999; Wilson et al., 2005). Furthermore, sexual fantasies (arousing mental images) in two types, intimate and exploratory, can reflect an individual's psychological functioning (Mohammadpour Doughabadi et al., 2021; Edwards, 2017). Although research has been conducted on the relationship between sexual satisfaction and quality of life with infidelity (Morvati, 2021; Ghaffarian-Roohparvar et al., 2017), the simultaneous role of sexual self-efficacy, love trauma, and sexual fantasies in predicting the tendency towards marital infidelity and emotional divorce has not been directly investigated. Therefore, this study seeks to examine the possibility of predicting the tendency towards these two harms based on the mentioned variables. Method This research was conducted using a descriptive-correlational method. The statistical population consisted of all married residents of Hamadan in the years 2023-2024. Using convenience sampling and based on Plant's formula (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007; cited in Hashemi & Khanzadi, 2023), 300 individuals (130 men and 170 women) were selected as the sample. Inclusion criteria included informed consent, age over 20, no history of psychiatric hospitalization, no addiction to drugs or alcohol, and no request for divorce in the past year. After obtaining necessary permits, data were collected in the field by distributing printed questionnaires on tendency to marital infidelity, emotional divorce, love trauma, sexual self-efficacy, and sexual fantasies in public places. Out of 312 distributed questionnaires, 300 complete questionnaires were entered into the final analysis. Adherence to ethical principles, including confidentiality and the right to withdraw, was emphasized. Data were analyzed using SPSS-26 software, employing descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation coefficient, and multiple regression. Findings Findings based on the analysis of data from 300 married participants (130 men and 170 women) in Hamadan showed that the statistical assumptions of regression (normality, independence of errors, absence of multicollinearity, and homogeneity of variances) were met. Love trauma had a significant negative correlation with sexual self-efficacy (p<.01, r=-0.27) and intimate sexual fantasy (p<.01, r=-0.47), and a significant positive correlation with tendency to marital infidelity (p<.01, r=0.36), exploratory sexual fantasy (p<.01, r=0.44), and emotional divorce (p<.01, r=0.46). Sexual self-efficacy also had a significant negative correlation with tendency to marital infidelity (p<.01, r=-0.29), exploratory sexual fantasy (p<.01, r=-0.44), and emotional divorce (p<.01, r=-0.45), and a significant positive correlation with intimate sexual fantasy (p<.01, r=0.42). Intimate sexual fantasy had a significant negative correlation with exploratory sexual fantasy (p<.01, r=-0.44), tendency to marital infidelity (p<.01, r=-0.66), and emotional divorce (p<.01, r=-0.44). Exploratory sexual fantasy had a significant positive correlation with tendency to marital infidelity (p<.01, r=0.68) and emotional divorce (p<.01, r=0.55). Tendency to marital infidelity had a significant positive correlation with emotional divorce (p<.01, r=0.74). Results of simultaneous multiple regression revealed that love trauma and exploratory sexual fantasy were positive predictors (with beta coefficients of 0.26 and 0.35, respectively), while sexual self-efficacy and intimate sexual fantasy were negative predictors (with beta coefficients of -0.19 and -0.31, respectively) of the tendency to marital infidelity. Furthermore, love trauma and exploratory sexual fantasy were positive predictors (with beta coefficients of 0.16 and 0.33, respectively), while sexual self-efficacy and intimate sexual fantasy were negative predictors (with beta coefficients of -0.17 and -0.15, respectively) of emotional divorce. Conclusion The findings of this study indicate that love trauma, sexual self-efficacy, and types of sexual fantasy (intimate and exploratory) play a determining role in predicting the tendency towards marital infidelity and emotional divorce. Specifically, experiencing love trauma and engagement with exploratory sexual fantasies (imagining relationships with individuals other than the spouse) act as risk factors and increase the tendency towards these harms. In contrast, an individual's belief in their sexual efficacy (sexual self-efficacy) and the focus of sexual fantasies on the relationship with the spouse (intimate sexual fantasy) serve as protective factors, reducing the tendency towards infidelity and emotional distancing. These relational patterns are consistent with the results of previous domestic and international studies. Given these findings, designing and implementing educational and interventional programs for couples seems essential. These programs should be developed with the aim of enhancing communication and sexual skills, increasing sexual self-efficacy, managing emotions arising from emotional trauma, and healthily directing sexual imaginations towards intimacy in the relationship. Such preventive measures can be effective in reducing harms like infidelity and emotional divorce by strengthening the emotional and functional foundations of marriage. However, the generalizability of these results requires caution due to limitations such as sampling from one city and the use of self-report methods. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106710.html Marital infidelity is a destructive phenomenon that threatens the stability of the marital relationship by undermining trust, weakening emotional bonds, and increasing the risk of separation and divorce. Empirical evidence indicates that a wide range of individual and contextual factors, such as personality traits, quality of the family of origin, self-differentiation, religious orientation, and patterns of using cyberspace, are associated with greater or lesser vulnerability to infidelity. In recent years, the rapid expansion of cyberspace and easy access to online communication have created new opportunities for forming emotional or sexual relationships outside marriage, often in hidden or low-supervision contexts. Although previous studies have separately examined some of these variables, there is still a need for an integrated model that simultaneously considers personality dimensions, health of the family of origin, religious orientation, self-differentiation, inclination toward cyberspace, and marital infidelity inclination. The present study was designed to address this gap by testing a structural model in which personality dimensions, family-of-origin health, and religious orientation predict marital infidelity inclination, while self-differentiation and inclination toward cyberspace are specified as mediating variables. The research design was descriptive–correlational and based on structural equation modeling. The statistical population consisted of all married individuals living in Shiraz in 2024 whose marital duration was at least one year and no more than ten years. Using convenience sampling in various public and semi-public settings, 305 participants were recruited after obtaining informed consent. Inclusion criteria were being legally married, falling within the specified range of marital duration, and willingness to participate. Providing distorted information or leaving more than 5% of items unanswered in any questionnaire served as exclusion criteria. Data were collected using a battery of self-report instruments assessing the main variables of the model. Personality traits were measured using the short form of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory, which assesses neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Health of the family of origin was evaluated with the Family-of-Origin Scale, and religious orientation was assessed by Allport’s Religious Orientation Scale. Self-differentiation was measured using Skowron’s Differentiation of Self Inventory, and inclination toward cyberspace was assessed using Young’s Internet Addiction Test, which captures problematic or excessive involvement with cyberspace. Marital infidelity inclination was measured with Whatley’s Marital Infidelity Inclination Scale. All scales used in the present study have been translated and validated in Iranian samples in previous research, and internal consistency coefficients in this study were in the acceptable range. Data analysis was performed in two stages. First, descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated using SPSS 26. In the second stage, the hypothesized structural model was tested through path analysis within the framework of structural equation modeling using Mplus 7.4. Age, length of marriage, and number of children were entered as control variables. The significance of indirect effects was examined through a bootstrap procedure with 5,000 resamples and 95% confidence intervals. The findings supported the adequacy of the proposed model. At the level of direct effects, agreeableness and conscientiousness were negatively associated with marital infidelity inclination, indicating that more cooperative and responsible individuals reported lower willingness to engage in extradyadic relationships. Neuroticism was negatively related to self-differentiation and positively associated with inclination toward cyberspace, suggesting that individuals with higher emotional instability tend to have weaker differentiation and are more likely to turn to cyberspace as a way of coping with tension and negative affect. Openness to experience showed a positive relationship with inclination toward cyberspace, indicating that individuals who are more curious and novelty-seeking are more strongly attracted to online environments and new forms of interaction. Agreeableness and conscientiousness were negatively related to inclination toward cyberspace, while conscientiousness was positively related to self-differentiation. Health of the family of origin and religious orientation were positively associated with self-differentiation and negatively related to inclination toward cyberspace; however, they did not show significant direct effects on marital infidelity inclination. Self-differentiation itself was not a significant direct predictor of infidelity inclination, whereas inclination toward cyberspace showed a positive and significant effect on marital infidelity inclination. Analysis of indirect effects using bootstrap confidence intervals indicated that neuroticism and openness to experience influenced marital infidelity inclination indirectly and positively through inclination toward cyberspace. In contrast, conscientiousness and religious orientation had negative and significant indirect effects on infidelity inclination via cyberspace, meaning that higher conscientiousness and stronger religious orientation reduced problematic use of cyberspace and thereby decreased inclination toward infidelity. Indirect paths involving health of the family of origin were not significant. The control variables (age, duration of marriage, and number of children) did not show significant effects on the main variables or the structural paths. Overall, the results highlight the central mediating role of inclination toward cyberspace in the relationship between personality dimensions, religious orientation, and marital infidelity inclination. Personality traits such as neuroticism and openness to experience appear to function as risk factors mainly by increasing the likelihood of engaging with cyberspace in ways that facilitate secret or emotionally intense relationships outside marriage. On the other hand, agreeableness and conscientiousness act as protective factors that directly reduce infidelity inclination and also indirectly lower risk by limiting problematic involvement in cyberspace. Religious orientation also emerged as a protective resource that, by discouraging risky online interactions and reinforcing moral commitment, indirectly decreases marital infidelity inclination. The non-significant role of self-differentiation and family-of-origin health in predicting infidelity inclination suggests that, in the context of powerful situational influences such as cyberspace use, distal family factors and intrapsychic differentiation may exert their impact mainly in the background. These findings underscore the necessity of paying attention to cyberspace use patterns in prevention and intervention programs targeting marital fidelity. It is recommended that premarital and marital counseling programs include components focused on digital literacy, setting clear boundaries for online interactions, and strengthening emotion regulation skills in virtual environments. Future research could adopt longitudinal and qualitative designs to clarify causal mechanisms and to explore how cultural context and gender roles shape the interplay among personality traits, religious orientation, cyberspace use, and marital infidelity. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106720.html From Biological Motherhood to Chosen Motherhood: A Grounded Theory Study of Meaning-Making Among Iranian Adoptive Mothers Extended Abstract Introduction and Problem Statement Motherhood, in many cultures including Iran, constitutes a core aspect of female social and ethical identity, often linked to biological processes of pregnancy, childbirth, and breastfeeding. This perception, rooted in what Ruddick termed the dominant "maternal ideology," creates a hegemonic norm where the "real mother" is who has experienced bearing a child. In Iran, this biologistic view is deeply embedded within cultural, familial, and legal institutions, framing motherhood as a primarily bodily phenomenon and a key determinant of social recognition. Bourdieu's concept of symbolic capital explains how biological ties function as pre-established legitimacy within the social field of motherhood, shaping both public and familial perceptions. Consequently, non-procreative paths, such as adoption, are often marginalized, lacking this initial symbolic capital and facing a "challenge of legitimization," which can affect mothers’ social credibility and self-concept. While international research has explored adoptive mothers’ identity formation, highlighting ambivalence, social scrutiny, and negotiation (Sigismondi, 2024; McInerney et al., 2021; Fontenot, 2007), the specific socio-cultural context of Iran, emphasizing bloodline and kinship, remains underexplored. Iranian studies have largely focused on legal, jurisprudential, or child-centric psychological aspects, with limited attention to mothers’ lived experiences, personal reflections, and identity-making processes (Hosseini & Mohaddesi, 2019). This study addresses this gap by investigating how Iranian adoptive mothers construct meaning, navigate societal expectations, and claim legitimacy within a dominant biologistic discourse, highlighting both individual agency and structural constraints. Theoretical Framework and Methodology This qualitative inquiry employs Constructivist Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2006; Strauss & Corbin), which is particularly suited for exploring complex, interpretive social processes like meaning-making, allowing theory to emerge inductively from participants’ narratives. Three theoretical perspectives guide the analysis: a) Dominant Maternal Ideology (Ruddick, 1989; Chodorow): to analyze hegemonic norms privileging biological motherhood and shaping social expectations. b) Bourdieu's Symbolic Capital and Social Fields: to conceptualize the "field of motherhood" as an unequal space where mothers compete for legitimacy, social recognition, and authority. c) Identity Work (Gonzales & Bauman, Snow & Anderson): Within this framework, identity is understood as a dynamic process rather than a stable personal essence. to examine the active, ongoing strategies mothers use to construct, sustain, and negotiate credible maternal identities. Data were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 26 adoptive mothers in Tehran Province, recruited via purposive and theoretical sampling. Interviews, lasting 60–90 minutes, were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding, producing a substantive theoretical model that captures both the individual and social dimensions of identity-making in adoptive motherhood. Key Findings: The Paradigm Model of Transformation The core phenomenon is the "Transformation from Biological to Chosen Motherhood," navigated in response to the challenge of "Legitimization within the Social Field of Motherhood," reflecting both personal meaning-making and negotiation of societal norms. 3.1. Causal Conditions Infertility as Identity Failure: Experiencing infertility as a profound crisis of feminine identity, accompanied by social devaluation and internalized feelings of inadequacy. Search for Meaning: An existential quest for purpose and significance in life, interrupted or rendered repetitive by childlessness, motivating mothers to seek alternative pathways to fulfillment. Emotional Encounter with the Child: A pivotal moment when meeting the child transforms initial feelings of pity or uncertainty into deep connection, belonging, and recognition of maternal purpose. 3.2. Strategies for Identity Work and Legitimization Narrative Construction of Choice: Reframing motherhood as a conscious, ethical decision, which redefines identity from "infertile women" to "agentic mothers" capable of meaningful action. Emphasis on Acquired Love: Highlighting that maternal love develops gradually through daily care, challenging assumptions of instinctive, innate maternal attachment. Creation of Symbolic Similarities: Deliberately fostering physical, behavioral, and stylistic resemblances with the child to create a visible, socially legible "naturalized" family image. Controlled Transparency: Managing disclosure of adoption stories to balance honesty, protect the child’s well-being, and navigate social stigma strategically. 3.3. Contextual and Intervening Conditions Extended Family Support: Acceptance and validation from wider family networks provide essential social capital, bolstering mothers’ legitimacy and confidence. Ambiguous Legal Frameworks: Persistent legal uncertainties regarding guardianship and custody create institutional anxiety, complicating the security and permanence of the mother-child relationship. 3.4. Consequence: Redefined Motherhood The outcome is the emergence of "Redefined/Chosen Motherhood," characterized by conscious commitment, acquired love, and continuous emotional work rather than biological determinism. This identity represents a resilient, empowered form of motherhood, enabling mothers to navigate social constraints and redefine cultural expectations. Discussion and Conclusion Iranian adoptive mothers are active agents shaping their own maternal identities, negotiating both personal meaning and societal legitimacy. Through deliberate identity work, they reconstruct motherhood as a conscious, ethical project grounded in choice, responsibility, and nurtured love. The study contributes theoretically by expanding the "Chosen Motherhood" model, illustrating that symbolic capital can be cultivated via non-biological routes and demonstrating the analytical potential of integrating Bourdieu, maternal ideology, and identity work frameworks. Practically, findings emphasize the need for psychosocial support for adoptive families, legal reforms to clarify adoption-related ambiguities, and public campaigns to destigmatize non-biological motherhood. These experiences communicate a broader societal message: family can be forged on the foundations of love, care, and intentional meaning-making, transcending biological ties. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106729.html Introduction:Marital relationships are among the most important human relationships, and their quality affects mental health and overall life satisfaction. Marital satisfaction is a key indicator of relationship stability, which is influenced by various factors. Among them, cognitive mechanisms such as self-talk play an important role. Self-talk refers to individuals' internal dialogues and can be positive or negative. According to Meichenbaum (1977), negative self-talk distorts thoughts and reduces efficiency, while positive self-talk guides behavior. This mechanism is formed from childhood with the development of language and is effective in the processes of regulation, self-management, and emotion control. Breithaupt et al. (2009) introduced four dimensions of self-talk: social evaluation, self-reinforcement, self-management, and self-criticism. Research has shown that some of these dimensions, such as self-criticism, are negatively related to marital satisfaction, but the results are contradictory and indicate the need to examine mediating factors. Since the marital relationship is a context for experiencing diverse emotions, emotion regulation is of particular importance. Garnefsky et al.'s (2002) model introduced adaptive (e.g., positive reappraisal) and maladaptive (e.g., catastrophizing) strategies. Maladaptive strategies are associated with decreased relationship quality and increased tension, while adaptive strategies promote resilience and improved satisfaction. Based on existing theories and evidence, self-talk can influence the selection and use of emotion regulation strategies. However, few studies have examined the mediating role of cognitive emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between self-talk and marital satisfaction. Therefore, the present study was designed to examine this cognitive-emotional mechanism. Method: The present study method is a descriptive correlational study with structural equation modeling. The statistical population included married men and women in 2025 who had access to the Internet and social networks during the sample collection period. The sample size consisted of 446 married men and women who were selected through convenience sampling. This research is descriptive correlational in nature and employs structural equation modeling. Although there is no consensus on the sample size required for factor analysis and structural equation modeling, many researchers suggest that a minimum sample size of 200 is necessary. Kline (46) also posits that 20 samples are needed for each variable. Therefore, in the present study, based on Klein's recommendation and considering the possibility of excluding some data in the process of examining outliers, a sample size of 400 participants was selected and 479 questionnaires were completed at the end of the sample. Inclusion criteria included permanent marriage, living under the same roof, first marriage, and not seeking divorce. To collect data, questionnaires were first designed online and then distributed in channels and groups active in the field of couple relationships on Telegram, Instagram, and ETA. Data collection tools included the Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire (ENRICH) developed by Olson and Fowers (1993), the Self-Talk Scale (STS) created by Brinthaupt et al. (2009), and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) designed by Garnefski et al. (2002). The data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and structural equation modeling. Result:The results indicated that self-critical self-talk and adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies had a significant direct effect marital satisfaction. Additionally, the findings revealed that adaptive strategies play a mediating role in the relationship between self-enhancement, self-management, and self-criticism with marital satisfaction. In order to evaluate the proposed model in the current research, the structural equation modeling (SEM) method has been employed. To assess the model's suitability, the indicators presented in Table 3 have been utilized. Also, if the normalized fit index (NFI), non-normed fit index (NNFI), comparative fit index (CFI), incremental fit index (IFI), goodness of fit index (GFI), and adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) are greater than 0/90, and the parsimonious fit index (PCFI) and the parsimonious normalized fit index (PNFI) are above 0/60, these metrics indicate an appropriate and optimal fit of the model. Based on the results of the final research model, it is evident that all of these indicators are favorable. Also, if the value obtained from the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) index is less than 0/08, it indicates a good fit for the model (46). In this research, the approximation index of goodness of fit (PCLOSE) is significant, and the RMSEA index is 0/001. It is equal to 0/065, indicating the model's fit based on Klein's framework. Ultimately, the results show that 16% of marital satisfaction can be explained. In other words, self-talk explains 16% of the variance in marital satisfaction, and adaptive and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies act as mediators. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that self-talk is an effective mechanism within emotion regulation styles. Self-criticism and social evaluative are associated with reduced self-regulation, whereas self-reinforcement and self-management are related to better adaptation to problems. Adaptive strategies were also positive predictors of marital satisfaction. In addition, self-criticism had a negative effect on satisfaction; decreased self-esteem and increased negative emotions such as shame are among the consequences of self-criticism. The findings indicated that self-reinforcing, self-managing, and self-critical self-talk can predict marital satisfaction through the mediating role of adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Self-reinforcement and self-management—mediated by adaptive strategies—reduce negative reactions, improve the emotion regulation process, and ultimately increase satisfaction. Furthermore, self-criticism, in addition to its direct effect, had a significant negative effect through adaptive strategies; however, the magnitude of this negative effect diminished in the presence of adaptive strategies. Therefore, adaptive strategies can be considered protective factors. One limitation of the study was the high level of marital satisfaction in the sample, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to couples with lower satisfaction. Thus, it is suggested that future research examine these mechanisms across different levels of marital satisfaction. Overall, the results demonstrated that self-talk plays an important role in the quality of marital relationships by influencing emotion regulation. Attention to these cognitive and emotional processes can facilitate a better understanding and enhancement of marital satisfaction. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106735.html Comparative Study of Schema Modes and Coping Styles and Their Impact on Marital Satisfaction in Women from Polygamous and Monogamous Families in Zahedan city "2024-2025" (Iran) ABSTRACT Introduction: The Family, as the most fundamental social institution, plays a key role in shaping identity, values, and human relationships (Aboui et al., 2023). Studies show that women in polygamous marriages experience higher levels of mental health problems, including depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem8, compared to women in monogamous marriages (Pangkam, 2024). These marriages often present many challenges, mainly revolving around fairness and justice in the relationship between spouses. One of these challenges is the unequal distribution of income, love, and attention, which directly affects the marital satisfaction of women in these families (Nouruddin and Salma, 2024). As stated in the study by Yilmaz (2022), women in polygamous families, especially senior wives, experience significant negative emotions, which often stem from the spouse's injustice and significantly reduce their marital satisfaction. Schema Modes and coping styles play an important role in the quality of marital relationships. This study aimed to compare Schema Modes and coping styles and their effect on marital satisfaction in women in polygamous and monogamous families. Methodology: The research method is descriptive-correlational and causal-comparative research. The statistical population of this study included women from monogamous and polygamous families referring to health centers of Zahedan University of Medical Sciences and health and treatment homes residing in Zahedan city during the period 2024-2025. The sampling method was purposive. The method of determining the sample size was based on previous studies (for example, the study by Mojahed and Birshak, 2003). The total number of selected samples was 120 people. The sampling method for the first group, namely women from polygamous families in Zahedan city, was purposive and the sample size was 60 people. And the comparison group, namely the group of women from monogamous families from women living in Zahedan city, was also selected as a sample of 60 people, which was selected as a counterpart to the first group in a convenience manner. Also, the present study was approved and implemented with the ethics approval ID IR.ZAUMS.REC.1404.021 of Zahedan University of Medical Sciences. The sample size for each group was 60 people. In order to conduct this study, the required questionnaires including Lobsthal et al.'s Schema Modes (2010), Bowman's coping styles (1999), and Enrich's marital satisfaction (1989) were collected in person and by the researcher visiting health centers and health homes. In this study, independent t-test, simultaneous regression analysis, and Pearson correlation were performed using SPSS26 software. Findings: In the monogamous group, most people had a high school diploma, 25 (41.7%) and in the polygamous group, most people had a high school diploma, 31 (51.7%). According to the chi-square test, there is a significant difference between the number of people based on education in the two groups (p<0.05). Therefore, education is controlled in the research analysis. The average age of monogamous people was 32.9 and its standard deviation was 7.26, and the average age of polygamous people was 34.33 and its standard deviation was 8.72.The results of the independent t-test showed that the average of the vulnerable child (22.55), undisciplined child (15.15) and punitive parent (15.20) mentalities in polygamy were higher than in monogamy, and the average of the happy child (38.39) and healthy adult (40.85) Schema Modes and marital satisfaction (41.06) were higher in monogamy than in polygamy. However, the average of the egocentric coping styles (20.05) and avoidance (30.75) were higher in polygamy than in monogamy. Result shows that the independent t-test for comparing schema mentalities showed that the difference between the two groups of polygamous and monogamous women in the schema mentalities of vulnerable child (-2.6), undisciplined child (-2.2), happy child (4.68), punitive parent mentality (-2.3) and healthy adult mentality (4.95) was significant (p<0.05). According to the mean scores in Table 1, the mean mentalities of vulnerable child (22.55), undisciplined child (15.15) and punitive parent (15.20) were higher in polygamous women than in monogamous women, and the mean mentalities of happy child (38.39) and healthy adult (40.85) were higher in monogamous women than in polygamous women. Also, the independent t-test for comparing coping styles showed that the difference between the two groups of polygamous and monogamous women in the coping styles of egocentric and avoidance styles was significant (p<0.05). According to the average scores in Table 1, the average of egocentric (20.05) and avoidance (30.75) coping styles was higher in polygamous women than in monogamous women. In addition, the results show that the independent t-test for comparing marital satisfaction showed that the difference between the two groups of polygamous and monogamous women in marital satisfaction was significant (p<0.05). According to the average scores in Table 1, the average of marital satisfaction in monogamous women (41.06) was higher than in polygamous women (36.66). The results of the regression analysis showed that the schema mentalities had a 46% and 33.8% predictive power of marital satisfaction in women in polygamous and monogamous families. Conclusions: Designing psychological interventions to modify unhealthy mentalities and teach constructive coping styles to women in polygamous families can help improve the quality of marital relationships. Also, promoting psychological awareness regarding the impact of polygamy on mental and family health seems essential. Keywords: Schematic mentalities, coping styles, marital satisfaction, polygamous, monogamous. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106750.html Background: Marital conflict represents one of the most pervasive relational challenges affecting contemporary families, and in many cases, these conflicts escalate into formal legal complaints filed by spouses against one another. While extensive research has examined overt or externally observable causes of such complaints—including financial disputes, dowry-related claims, physical violence, and other tangible marital conflicts—far fewer studies have explored the psychological motivations that underpin the decision to take legal action against a spouse. In the Iranian context, in particular, a clear gap exists in understanding these internal motivational drivers. Although prior investigations have documented external factors such as economic pressure, familial interference, or legal incentives, the covert psychological dynamics that shape an individual’s decision to file a complaint remain insufficiently understood. The present study aims to bridge this critical gap by identifying and categorizing the underlying psychological motives that lead spouses in Yazd, Iran, to initiate legal complaints against their partners. Methods: This research employed a qualitative design using conventional content analysis. Participants were selected through purposive sampling from individuals who had initiated marital complaints in the judicial system of Yazd. Sampling continued until theoretical saturation was achieved, resulting in 25 in-depth semi-structured interviews lasting 50–90 minutes each. Interviews began with open-ended prompts such as: “What motivated you to file a complaint against your spouse?” and progressed through probing questions aimed at uncovering deeper psychological and relational motives. All interviews were handwritten, repeatedly reviewed, and systematically coded. Using constant comparative analysis, initial codes were grouped into clusters, then into categories and overarching themes. Credibility was strengthened through prolonged engagement with data, peer debriefing, and participant validation. Results: Data analysis yielded 34 concepts, eight categories, and two overarching themes: internal psychological factors and external social-contextual factors that motivate legal complaints. 1. Internal Motivational Factors: This theme includes four categories: o Power-seeking: Participants reported filing complaints to intimidate their spouse, assert dominance, or regain perceived lost authority in the marital system. Motivations included instilling fear, seeking revenge, controlling the partner, or proving one’s righteousness. Women disproportionately cited power-related motives; 67% of female participants reported at least one such theme, whereas none of the men did. o Helplessness: Some participants described profound feelings of entrapment, emotional exhaustion, or limited personal agency. Filing a complaint was perceived as the only available means to halt ongoing conflict or aggression. o Support-seeking: Several individuals expressed a longing for emotional or social protection, either due to lack of family support, experiences of victimization, or repeated psychological and physical abuse. For these participants, legal action served as a substitute for absent familial or communal support. o Attention-seeking: Many participants viewed complaints as a way to elicit attention, address unmet emotional needs, respond to perceived neglect, or confront suspected infidelity. A central feature among these cases was poor communication skills and inability to negotiate emotional needs constructively. 2. External Motivational Factors: Four categories emerged within this theme: o Financial security: Complaints were frequently filed to claim dowry (mahr), alimony, or other property rights, or to protect family assets. Financial incentives—including high-value dowries—played a strong motivational role for several participants. o Influence of others: Family members, friends, attorneys, and social networks heavily influenced decision-making. Some participants filed complaints not out of personal conviction but due to pressure or advice from relatives. o Attempt to improve the relationship: Paradoxically, certain participants turned to legal action in hopes of reforming their spouse’s behavior, restoring marital harmony, or compelling their partner to return home. o Desire for separation or divorce: A substantial portion of participants—especially women—used complaints to pursue divorce directly or indirectly, either due to emotional disengagement, interest in another partner, or chronic relational dissatisfaction. Conclusion: This study identifies a nuanced spectrum of psychological motivations behind marital complaints—motivations that are often hidden beneath the surface of overt legal claims. Importantly, most internal motives (power-seeking, helplessness, support-seeking, and attention-seeking) and several external motives (financial concerns, the influence of others, and attempts to improve the relationship) are amenable to psychological intervention. The findings therefore underscore an urgent need to integrate pre-complaint psychological assessment and counseling into the judicial and family service systems. Interventions such as enhancing self-esteem, fostering forgiveness processes, promoting equitable power distribution within the family, and improving communication and problem-solving skills may significantly reduce the likelihood of complaint initiation and mitigate the emotional damage associated with legal conflict. The study emphasizes that many individuals who file complaints are not necessarily seeking divorce; rather, they are searching for mechanisms to regain control, seek emotional validation, or repair relational ruptures. Participants also highlighted their regret regarding legal involvement and strongly recommended mutual agreement—whether toward reconciliation or peaceful separation—over prolonged legal disputes. This insight reinforces the necessity of educating couples about the psychological and relational consequences of legal action, as well as providing more accessible conflict-resolution resources. Overall, this study contributes a novel psychological perspective to the literature on marital conflict in Iran and provides practical implications for clinicians, counselors, and policymakers seeking to reduce the growing rates of spousal complaints. The results of this study showed that filing a complaint against a spouse is not simply a legal reaction to marital conflicts, but in many cases it is a response to psychological needs, feelings of power inequality, helplessness, or external pressures. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106758.html Based on the conditions of the official marriage certificate, the husband grants the wife irrevocable power of attorney in divorce so that in twelve specified cases, the wife can proceed with divorce by going to court and completing the legal formalities as the husband's attorney. The ultimate goal of these conditions is to protect the wife and to grant her the right to divorce as the husband's attorney in specific cases and to prevent the husband from abusing the exclusive right to divorce, but some jurisprudential and legal characteristics of attorneyship cause its capacity as a reliable institution for the wife to be questioned. The findings of the present study, which are organized in a descriptive-analytical method and based on library resources, indicate that the attorneyship does not have much capacity to support the wife and achieve the aforementioned ultimate goals. The proposal of this study is to pursue the aforementioned goals by making the judicial divorce institution more agile. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106760.html Marital communication and cognitive challenges, including diminished marital intimacy and cognitive flexibility, are fundamental issues in marital relationships that can negatively affect marital stability and quality of life.Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effect of self-differentiation-based intervention on marital intimacy and cognitive flexibility in couples exhibiting emotional cutoff syndrome.This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population consisted of married couples with emotional cutoff syndrome who visited Mehraein Psychological Counseling Center in Malayer, Iran, in2024.A convenience sample of40participants was selected and randomly assigned to either the experimental(n=20)or control group(n=20).Measurement tools included the Self-Differentiation Scale(Skowron & Friedlander, 1998),Marital Intimacy Needs Questionnaire(Bagarozzi, 2001),Cognitive Flexibility Inventory(Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010),and a self-differentiation intervention protocol.The experimental group underwent10sessions of90-minute self-differentiation therapy, while posttests were administered to both groups. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance.MANCOVA results indicated a significant difference(p<0.01)in post-intervention scores of marital intimacy and cognitive flexibility between the experimental and control groups. The self-differentiation intervention significantly improved both marital intimacy and cognitive flexibility(p < 0.01).The findings confirm the efficacy of self-differentiation intervention in enhancing marital and cognitive relationships.Thus, this approach can serve as an effective strategy in family counseling centers and couple education programs. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106764.html Background and Objective: Assessing couples' relationships across languages and cultures has important implications for clinical interventions and prevention. However, empirically validated measures of relationship functioning for couples from non-Western cultures are generally lacking. The present study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the Persian translation of the Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSI-R) in a sample of 700 people from four provinces of Alborz, Qazvin, Zanjan and Hamedan. Research Method: This descriptive study was conducted with two quantitative and qualitative methods. The selection of the research sample was done using purposive sampling. Most of the data collected were real and field-based from environments such as family parks, playgrounds and family recreation centers, dispute resolution centers (branch of the family court), counseling centers, conferences and educational workshops for educators, universities, preschool children's assessment centers, shopping centers, and part of the research was designed through the design of a virtual questionnaire and by publishing a link for more people to cooperate. In total, data collection was used from all available environments that covered the research community. Also, in order to comply with ethical principles and inform the participants of the research objectives, the necessary information was provided to them verbally before completing the questionnaires, and the participants completed the form in writing. Volunteered to cooperate in the implementation of the project. In order to prepare a valid Persian version of the Marital Satisfaction Index, two criteria of validity and reliability were considered from the original version. To ensure validity, four methods of linguistic validity, face validity, content validity and construct validity were used, and three methods of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), composite validity and test-retest validity were used to examine the validity of the questionnaire. Three questionnaires, Schneider's Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire, Hudson's Marital Satisfaction Index (IMS) and Kansas Eggman Marital Conflict Scale (KMSS), were used to collect data and information. The linguistic validity of the questionnaire (MSI-R) was carried out by translating the questionnaire using the standard forward and backward translation method. The questionnaire was translated by English translators and family counselors. The next step was to compare and review the two translated texts in terms of quality and evaluate them. Finally, to select the most appropriate translation for the phrases, the initial translations were combined and a common Persian version was agreed upon. To further ensure the accuracy of the translation The final translated version of the questionnaire was provided to another translator who had not seen the original English text for translation from Persian. After comparing the translated version to English with the original text of the questionnaire and consulting with translators and family counselors, conceptual similarity (containing the conceptual content of the original version of the questionnaire) and the overall quality of the translation were examined, and thus the Persian version of the revised Schneider Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire was prepared. The face validity of the questionnaire was conducted using two qualitative and quantitative methods with 14 and 20 participants, respectively. The qualitative content validity of the questionnaire was approved by 8 psychologists and family counselors. The quantitative content validity was calculated by consulting the opinions of 10 members of the expert panel, the CVI and CVR indices. After evaluating the data conditions with two KMO criteria and Bartlett test, the construct validity of the questionnaire was also calculated using two methods of exploratory factor analysis and convergent and divergent validity with Varimax rotation and correlation coefficient methods, respectively. According to the impact score calculations, CVR and CVI, the face and content validity of all items was confirmed. The results of exploratory factor analysis also extracted 12 factors of the questionnaire and confirmed their factoriality with an eigenvalue of 1.549. Findings: The correlation coefficients in convergent and divergent validity were 0.73 and 0.31, respectively, and were significant, confirming the convergent and diagnostic validity. Cronbach's alpha for the overall reliability results of the instrument was 0.75 and more than 0.7 for all factors, indicating appropriate internal consistency of the items in all factors. Also, the correlation coefficients in the test-retest method were between 0.67 and 0.83, with a total coefficient of 0.81, indicating a significant to high correlation, indicating confirmation of the stability of the test reliability. In the composite reliability index, except for the problem-solving scale with a difference of 0.1, the composite reliability of other subscales was confirmed based on the correlation of their structures. Conclusion: Based on the results of the study, the translated Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSI-R) For the Iranian sample, it has good validity and reliability, and the use of this tool in clinical centers for preventive or interventional measures among Persian-speaking couples can be useful. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106765.html Objective: Marital satisfaction, defined as an individual's subjective evaluation of the happiness, fulfillment, and quality within their marital relationship, is a cornerstone of family stability and overall well-being. Extensive research has linked high marital satisfaction to positive outcomes such as better physical and mental health, effective parenting, and resilience against life stressors. Conversely, low marital satisfaction is associated with increased risk of depression, anxiety, domestic discord, and emotional divorce. While the individual impacts of psychological distress and social pressures on marriage are well-documented, the intricate interplay between these factors within the broader family system requires further exploration. Specifically, the mechanisms through which personal anxiety and the structural challenges of role conflicts influence marital quality are complex and potentially indirect. This study was conducted with the primary objective of investigating the relationship between anxiety and role conflicts on marital satisfaction, with a specific focus on examining the mediating role of family cohesion in a sample of married women. The central hypothesis was that anxiety and role conflict would exert significant indirect effects on marital satisfaction by impacting the level of cohesion and solidarity within the family unit. Methodology: This research adopted a descriptive-correlational design, which is appropriate for examining the relationships among multiple variables and testing a hypothesized mediation model. The statistical population included all married women residing in the city of Meybod, Iran, during the year 2024. To ensure an adequate sample size for structural equation modeling (SEM), which requires larger samples for stable parameter estimates, a total of 300 participants were selected. Data collection was conducted using an online survey platform. Four standardized and validated instruments were employed: the 25-item ENRICH Marital Satisfaction Scale (Olson, 1992) to measure the dependent variable; the 21-item Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck, 1988) to assess the severity of anxiety symptoms; the 8-item Role Conflict Questionnaire (Rizzo et al., 1970) to measure the degree of conflict experienced from incompatible role expectations; and the 13-item Family Cohesion Scale (Fisher, 1992) to evaluate the level of emotional bonding, support, and unity within the family. Data analysis was performed using SPSS for descriptive statistics and preliminary correlation analysis, and AMOS software was used to conduct structural equation modeling to test the hypothesized direct and indirect pathways. Results: Preliminary analysis using the Pearson correlation coefficient revealed significant relationships among the main variables. As expected, marital satisfaction was positively correlated with family cohesion (r = 0.273, p < 0.01) and negatively correlated with both anxiety (r = -0.127, p < 0.05) and role conflict (r = -0.587, p < 0.01). Furthermore, family cohesion was negatively correlated with both anxiety (r = -0.211, p < 0.01) and role conflict (r = -0.191, p < 0.01), suggesting that higher distress and role pressure are associated with weaker family bonds. The primary analysis using SEM provided key insights into the nature of these relationships. Firstly, the direct paths from anxiety to marital satisfaction (β = -0.096, p = 0.257) and from role conflict to marital satisfaction (β = 0.078, p = 0.160) were found to be statistically non-significant in the full model. This indicates that these variables do not have a straightforward, direct linear impact on marital satisfaction when other factors are considered. However, significant direct effects were found for the paths to the mediator. Anxiety had a significant negative effect on family cohesion (β = -0.247, p < 0.001), and role conflict also had a significant negative effect on family cohesion (β = -0.217, p < 0.001). This confirms that higher levels of anxiety and greater role conflict are associated with lower levels of cohesion within the family. In turn, family cohesion had a strong, significant positive direct effect on marital satisfaction (β = 0.294, p < 0.001), affirming that more cohesive families report higher marital quality. The most critical findings emerged from the mediation analysis. The indirect effect of anxiety on marital satisfaction through family cohesion was significant and negative (β = -0.073, p < 0.01, 95% CI [-0.152, -0.030]). Similarly, the indirect effect of role conflict on marital satisfaction through family cohesion was significant and negative (β = -0.064, p < 0.01, 95% CI [-0.125, -0.033]). As the direct effects were non-significant while the indirect effects were significant, this pattern indicates that family cohesion acts as a full mediator in both relationships. The final structural model demonstrated an excellent fit to the data, with all fit indices well within the acceptable ranges (χ²/df = 2.694, RMSEA = 0.074, CFI = 0.979, GFI = 0.974, NFI = 0.972), thereby validating the robustness of the findings. Conclusion: This study provides compelling evidence that the adverse impacts of anxiety and role conflicts on marital satisfaction are not primarily direct but are instead fully mediated by family cohesion. The findings suggest that anxiety and incompatible role pressures erode the quality of marital life by weakening the foundational fabric of the family—its cohesion, emotional support, and sense of unity. When family cohesion is low, the resources necessary to buffer individual stress and manage external pressures are diminished, thereby paving the way for marital dissatisfaction. Conversely, a highly cohesive family environment can act as a powerful protective shield, absorbing the shocks of individual anxiety and role strain and preventing them from significantly damaging the marital relationship. These results are consistent with family systems theory and Olson's Circumplex Model, which identify balanced cohesion as crucial for healthy family functioning. The practical implications of this study are significant for mental health professionals. Interventions aimed at improving marital satisfaction should move beyond an exclusive focus on reducing individual anxiety symptoms or resolving specific role conflicts. Instead, a more effective approach would involve strengthening the overall cohesion of the family system by enhancing emotional bonds, improving communication, and fostering mutual support. Workshops and therapeutic programs designed to build these cohesive qualities can equip families with the resilience needed to navigate the inevitable stresses of modern life, thereby safeguarding and enhancing marital satisfaction in the long term. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106820.html Introduction: Emotion regulation is a fundamental process in social and interpersonal relationships, especially marital relationships. This concept refers to a set of cognitive and behavioral processes that are used to manage the experience and expression of emotions (Gross, 2015). According to the model of Garnefsky et al (2002), emotion regulation is carried out through cognitive strategies that are consciously and purposefully used to reinterpret stressful situations and reduce negative emotions. This model introduces two categories of strategies: adaptive strategies such as acceptance, positive reappraisal and reprogramming, and maladaptive strategies such as self-blame, catastrophizing and rumination. The importance of emotion regulation in marital relationships is particularly significant, because the quality of couples' interactions, conflict resolution and relationship satisfaction depend to a large extent on their ability to manage emotions (Bloch et al., 2014). Marital satisfaction is one of the main indicators of mental health and family adjustment and reflects individuals' positive attitudes towards various aspects of the marital relationship. Previous studies have pointed out the difference between the ability to regulate emotion in couples with high and low levels of marital satisfaction. Avatkarim et al. (2014) pointed out the use of adaptive strategies in couples with higher marital satisfaction and their low scores in using maladaptive strategies. Bagheri et al. (2024) emphasized the importance of emotion regulation skills, stating that couples who have reached emotional separation in their marital relationship lacked sufficient skills for emotion regulation. Several individual and situational factors affect emotion regulation in relationships. One of them is the duration of marriage. The results of the study by Masumoto et al. (2021) showed that the use of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies decreases over the duration of marriage; In other words, increasing years of marriage act as a buffer against negative psychological consequences resulting from the regulation of spouses' emotions. Gender also affects the choice of emotion regulation strategies. The use of specific emotion regulation strategies and the degree of involvement of the nervous system in women and men in the field of emotion regulation are two frequently cited findings in previous research (Goubet and Chrysikou, 2019) A simultaneous examination of these three factors can provide a more accurate understanding of couples' emotional patterns and help identify factors that play a role in maintaining or weakening marital satisfaction. Accordingly, the present study aimed to compare emotion regulation strategies in married couples based on gender, duration of marriage, and level of marital satisfaction in order to provide a comprehensive picture of the interaction between these variables within the framework of marital relationships. Method: The present study is descriptive-comparative and cross-sectional. The statistical population included all married men and women in the country in 2025 who were active on social networks. A sample of479 people was selected using the convenience method, and after removing incomplete data, the final analysis was conducted on 446 people (266women and 180 men). Inclusion criteria included permanent marriage, cohabitation, first marriage, and no divorce request. Two tools were used to collect data: the ENRICH Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire (ENRICH) by Favors and Olson (1993) and the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies Questionnaire (CERQ) by Greensky et al. (2002). In this study, gender, duration of marriage, and levels of marital satisfaction were used as comparison factors. Duration of marriage was categorized into 4 categories: 1-5 years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years, and 15 years or more, and levels of marital satisfaction were also examined in three categories based on the ENRICH scale. At the descriptive level, mean and standard deviation were used, and at the inferential level, one-way and multivariate analysis of variance statistical methods were used. All statistical operations were performed with SPSS version 26 software. Results: The average age of women was 35/47 and men was 40/78. The highest frequency was related to the group of marriages over 15 years (171 people). In terms of marital satisfaction, 95 people were at an average level and 351 people were at a high level. Before testing the hypotheses, the results of the skewness and kurtosis indices showed that the data had a normal distribution and the assumptions of the Levine and M-box tests were also valid. In order to control for type I error resulting from multiple univariate tests, the Bonferroni correction was used. The initial significance level of the study (α = 0.05) was divided by the number of dependent variables, resulting in a modified significance level of 0.005. Based on this modified significance level, only rumination and acceptance strategies were significantly different between women and men and refocusing on planning and positive reappraisal strategies were significantly different between individuals with moderate and high marital satisfaction. Other effects that were significant at the initial significance level (p < 0.05) in Table 4 did not reach significance after applying the Bonferroni correction. Discussion: The results of the present study showed that after applying Bonferroni correction, rumination and acceptance strategies were significantly different between women and men; in such a way that women scored higher than men in these two strategies. From the perspective of gender socialization, women are more encouraged to emotionally process experiences and pay attention to internal states, while men are led to problem-focused confrontation with stressful situations. Also, levels of marital satisfaction are only significantly related to adaptive strategies of refocusing on planning and positive reappraisal. Couples who experience higher levels of marital satisfaction and intimacy live in a safe emotional environment characterized by mutual support and empathy. These couples are more likely to use active cognitive strategies such as positive reappraisal and problem-solving planning when faced with stressful events. The limitations of the present study include the convenience sampling method, the cross-sectional nature of the design, and the self-report nature of the instrument, namely questionnaires. Also, the research data was collected individually and not as couples. Therefore, generalization of the results should be done with caution, and it is suggested that these limitations be addressed in future studies. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106887.html Children’s privacy in the digital age faces challenges arising from rapid technological advances, the pervasive use of social media, and the growing commercialisation of online spaces. The right to privacy, long recognised as a fundamental human right, has been significantly reshaped in recent decades as digital technologies have transformed how personal information is created, shared, and monetised. These transformations are particularly consequential for children, who constitute a vulnerable group lacking full legal capacity and the ability to make independent decisions. As a result, protecting children’s privacy requires heightened scrutiny and safeguards, with parents and families bearing primary responsibility for preserving this right. Yet, paradoxically, it is often parental conduct itself that poses the greatest threat to children’s digital privacy. One of the most prominent manifestations of this crisis is the phenomenon known as “sharenting,” a practice in which parents widely share images, videos, and personal data about their underage children on social media platforms. Frequently motivated by financial incentives, social recognition, or online visibility, sharenting has become embedded in influencer culture and platform-based economies that reward visibility and engagement. In this context, children may be exposed to global audiences long before they can grasp the implications of digital permanence, surveillance, or reputational harm. Without meaningful consent or awareness, they are often transformed into instruments of content production and, in some cases, sources of income for their parents. This raises a fundamental legal and ethical question: does the child possess an independent right to control their digital footprint, or is this right entirely subsumed under parental authority and representation? Historically, children’s right to privacy lacked a distinct and autonomous legal status. Before the early twenty-first century, this right was largely inferred through general principles rather than expressly articulated legal norms. However, evolving international human rights standards have progressively recognised children as independent rights-holders in this domain. Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights explicitly guarantees respect for private and family life, a provision that the European Court of Human Rights has consistently interpreted as encompassing children. This interpretation imposes positive obligations on states to prevent, investigate, and remedy violations of privacy, including those arising within the family sphere. States are further required to ensure the existence of effective judicial mechanisms to address complaints concerning infringements of the right to private life, grounded in fair trial principles. Similarly, Article 16 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child affirms the child’s right to protection against arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence. It underscores the necessity of legal safeguards to uphold this protection. Additional provisions of the Convention, including Article 40(2)(b)(vii), reinforce the centrality of privacy as a core component of children’s rights, particularly in judicial and administrative proceedings. Collectively, these instruments reflect a paradigm shift from viewing children merely as objects of parental authority to recognising them as autonomous rights-bearers whose interests may at times diverge from those of their parents. Against this normative backdrop, the present study adopts a descriptive–analytical and comparative methodology to examine how legal systems reconcile parental autonomy with the need for state intervention to protect children’s digital privacy. The legal systems of the United States and France are analysed as two contrasting models. The U.S. framework places strong emphasis on parental discretion, rooted in constitutional protections of family autonomy and freedom of expression. In this system, parental speech—particularly online sharing—often enjoys robust First Amendment protection, and state intervention remains limited unless demonstrable harm is established. Consequently, sharenting is generally treated as an extension of parental free speech, with minimal recognition of children’s independent privacy interests. In contrast, French law adopts a more child-centred approach by explicitly recognising the child’s independent right to image and personal data. This recognition enables legal constraints on parental authority where parental conduct conflicts with the child’s best interests. French courts and legislation increasingly acknowledge that parents’ management of their children’s digital presence is subject to legal limits, particularly when it exposes the child to reputational harm, exploitation, or long-term digital risks. This model reflects a broader European tendency to prioritise data protection, dignity, and personality rights, even within family relationships. The study further explores the implications of these comparative findings for the Iranian legal system. Although Iranian law lacks explicit statutory provisions addressing sharenting or children’s digital privacy as an autonomous right, it nevertheless contains normative foundations that support such recognition. Principles such as the best interests of the child, alongside established rules of civil liability and criminal protections against child abuse, neglect, and exploitation, provide a legal basis for redefining the scope of parental representation in the digital context. Iranian child protection laws already recognise forms of harm arising from parental negligence, coercion, or exploitation, suggesting that unchecked sharenting could be addressed through existing legal doctrines. The findings of this research indicate that the absence of explicit regulation does not equate to normative incapacity. Instead, through purposive interpretation and comparative insight, Iranian law can evolve to acknowledge children’s independent digital privacy rights while respecting legitimate parental autonomy. Ultimately, the study argues that balancing parental freedom with children’s rights requires a shift from absolute parental control toward a model grounded in responsibility, proportionality, and the primacy of the child’s best interests. In an era where digital footprints are enduring and irreversible, safeguarding children’s privacy is not merely a policy preference but a legal necessity essential to protecting their dignity, identity, and future autonomy. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_106913.html The research was conducted with the aim of meta-analysis of researches in the field of effectiveness of therapeutic approach based on acceptance and commitment on indicators of relationships between couples and to resolve possible contradictions in the results of different researches. The number of 68 primary researches based on the entry and exit criteria among articles and theses in the country that were available in the Center for Documents and Information of Scientific Documents of Iran, the Scientific Database of Jihad Academic, the Information Bank of Iranian Publications and during the years 1390 to March 1402 were selected and entered in Misrabadi data entry form (2015) and then the selected researches were analyzed with CMA 2 software. The summary effect sizes of the random model of the effectiveness of the therapeutic approach based on acceptance and commitment on the separation of positive and negative indicators in relationships between couples were equal to 1.325 and 0.428. It has a moderate effect. Due to the high degree of heterogeneity, the effect sizes were analyzed by different types of indicators.The implications of this meta-analysis emphasize the high effects of the treatment based on acceptance and commitment on various indicators in relationships between couples https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_107006.html Abstract: The present study aimed to compare Johnson’s Emotion-Focused Approach and Gottman’s Model on marital quality and spousal family functioning in couples. The statistical population of the study included couples with at least two years of marital experience and a high school diploma or higher, who visited health centers in Qaen from May to July 2025 to receive counseling. A total of 60 individuals (30 couples) participated. The study employed a quasi-experimental design with an unequal control group. Participants were selected purposefully and randomly assigned to three groups (each group comprising 10 women and 10 men). The first group received nine 90-minute sessions of Johnson’s Emotion-Focused Approach training, while the second group received eight 45-minute sessions of Gottman’s Model training. The control group did not receive any intervention. Data collection instruments included the Busby Marital Quality Scale and the Family Functioning Scale regarding the spouse. Questionnaires were completed at pre-test, post-test, and follow-up stages. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and the Friedman test in SPSS-27. The results indicated that the Gottman approach was more effective than Johnson’s Emotion-Focused Approach on marital quality (30% vs. 16.7%) and spousal family functioning (86% vs. 74%). The findings suggest that both approaches can improve the quality of couples’ relationships and spousal family functioning and can be applied in counseling centers. Introduction The family is recognized as a social institution, yet it encompasses many individual dimensions, with particular emphasis on its nurturing and satisfying role, especially for spouses. One of the important aspects of marital relationships is the quality of the marital bond, which plays a central role in evaluating overall family interactions. Marital quality is a multidimensional concept, encompassing various aspects of couples' interactions, including satisfaction, compatibility, and cohesion. Marriage is considered one of the most significant decisions in an individual’s life. Studying marital relationships helps clarify the structural framework within which couples' interactions are formed. Furthermore, marriage represents the union of two families; therefore, establishing a positive relationship with the spouse’s family is an important component of marital quality. Johnson’s Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT) is a therapeutic approach that has gained attention among therapists in recent years for resolving marital issues. EFT integrates experiential, systemic, and adult attachment theories. Another approach that enhances marital quality and helps couples experience a more satisfying shared life is the Gottman Couples Therapy Model. This model simultaneously focuses on behavioral changes, belief modifications, exploring hidden and unconscious meanings, and adopting a systemic perspective toward the family. Method The present study employed a quasi-experimental design with pre-test, post-test, control group, and follow-up. The statistical population included couples with at least two years of marital experience and a high school diploma or higher who visited health centers in Qaen from May to July 2025 for counseling. A total of 30 couples (30 women and 30 men) were selected through convenience sampling and, after matching, were randomly assigned to three groups: 20 participants in the Johnson’s EFT group, 20 participants in the Gottman Model group, and 20 participants in the control group, with each group comprising 10 women and 10 men. Inclusion criteria: At least two years of marital experience Minimum high school education Physical health Scoring below 35 on the Marital Quality Questionnaire Low scores on the Spousal Family Functioning Questionnaire Voluntary informed consent to participate Exclusion criteria: Missing more than two consecutive sessions Lack of cooperation or failure to complete assigned tasks Unwillingness of either spouse to continue participation After obtaining approval and announcing the call for participants, eligible couples were identified at health centers. Informed consent forms were distributed voluntarily, and pre-tests were conducted for all three groups. The first experimental group attended nine 90-minute weekly sessions of Johnson’s EFT. The second experimental group received eight 45-minute sessions, held twice a week, based on the Gottman Model. The control group received no intervention. Post-tests were administered after the intervention, and a one-month follow-up was conducted to assess the sustainability of effects. Data from the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up stages were analyzed using one-way repeated measures ANOVA and the Friedman test in SPSS version 27. Research Instruments 1. Marital Quality Questionnaire (RDAS): The Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (RDAS), developed by Busby et al. (1995) and revised by Busby, Crane, Larson, and Christensen, was used to assess the quality of marital relationships. The questionnaire consists of 14 items across three subscales: Consensus (6 items), Satisfaction (5 items), and Cohesion (3 items). Higher scores indicate higher marital quality. 2. Spousal Family Relationship Questionnaire: This scale was developed by Cheraghi in 2014 (1393 Iranian calendar) and includes 87 items with three subscales: Items 1–34: Individual attachment to the spouse’s family Items 35–69: Flexible boundary between the spouse and the spouse’s family Items 70–87: Couple cohesion All items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). For scoring the systemic-triangular method, some items are reverse-coded, and total scores are calculated. Sample items include: My spouse’s family loves me as if I were their child. I feel like a stranger in my spouse’s family. The reliability of this questionnaire in the present study, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.68. Results Regarding the age distribution of participating couples, in both the Johnson EFT group and the Gottman Model group, the highest percentage of participants (40%) were aged 41–50 years. In the control group, the majority of participants (45%) were aged 31–40 years. The findings indicated that the effectiveness of training based on the Gottman Model was 30% for marital quality and 86% for spousal family functioning. In comparison, the effectiveness of training based on Johnson’s EFT was 16.7% for marital quality and 74% for spousal family functioning https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_107008.html Introduction: Marriage, as a fundamental social institution, constitutes the foundation of intimate and social relationships and plays a central role in psychological well being, emotional stability, and social cohesion (Sadeghi, 2019). Within marriage, men and women form a dynamic family unit through symbolic bonds rooted in instincts, cultural rituals, emotional attachment, and mutual commitment. Nevertheless, many individuals show a recurrent tendency to enter emotionally harmful relationships, a pattern that extends beyond marriage to relationships with family members, friends, and colleagues (Powling et al., 2024). One of the most prevalent yet concealed forms of relational harm is emotional abuse. Emotional and psychological abuse refers to persistent patterns of behaviors aimed at controlling, humiliating, intimidating, or isolating the victim through verbal and non verbal interactions (Teaster et al., 2020). Such behaviors include chronic criticism, emotional neglect, manipulation, gaslighting, and inducing guilt, which gradually undermine self esteem and emotional security (Abusbaitan et al., 2025). Evidence from Iranian studies indicates that emotional abuse is highly prevalent among married women, and cultural norms often lead to silence, tolerance, and underreporting, thereby intensifying its negative impact on mental health, emotional adjustment, and marital relationships (Payazad, 2019; Pourbakhtiar et al., 2024; Ahmadi, 2019). Given the critical role of marital intimacy and adjustment in marital satisfaction and psychological health (Zarch et al., 2014; Bagarozzi, 2001), examining differences in these variables among women with and without experiences of emotional abuse is of substantial importance. Methodology: The present study employed a causal comparative research design. The statistical population consisted of married women aged 25–40 years residing in Tehran who had sought services from counseling and psychological centers during the study period. A total of 160 participants were selected through convenience sampling and assigned to two equal groups: 80 women with experiences of emotional abuse and 80 women without such experiences. The two groups were matched on demographic and background variables, including duration of marriage, educational level, employment status, history of divorce, and family upbringing. Data collection instruments included the Dyadic Adjustment Scale developed by Spanier (1976), the Bagarozzi Marital Intimacy Needs Questionnaire (Bagarozzi, 2001), and the Gini Nicarti Emotional Abuse Questionnaire, all of which have demonstrated acceptable validity and reliability in Iranian samples (Karami, 2015; Hassanzadeh, 2020; Naseri, 2013). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential methods, including multivariate analysis of variance and independent samples t tests, with SPSS version 26, following methodological recommendations for comparative studies (Memon et al., 2020). Findings: Demographic findings indicated that the highest age frequency among women with experiences of emotional abuse was in the 30–34‑year age group, whereas among non‑abused women it was in the 35–40‑year age group; the lowest frequencies were observed in the 35–40‑year range for abused women and the 25–29‑year range for non‑abused women. Regarding educational level, the lowest frequencies were observed among participants with doctoral and below‑diploma degrees, while the highest frequency was related to diploma and associate degree levels. Descriptive statistical indices revealed that the mean level of marital adjustment was higher among women with experiences of emotional abuse compared to non‑abused women, and a similar pattern was observed for overall marital intimacy, with abused women reporting higher mean scores than their non‑abused counterparts. However, component‑level analyses of marital adjustment showed that non‑abused women obtained higher mean scores in dyadic satisfaction, dyadic consensus, dyadic cohesion, and affectional expression than women with experiences of emotional abuse. Furthermore, examination of marital intimacy dimensions demonstrated that physical intimacy was the only domain in which abused women reported a higher mean score, whereas in all other intimacy dimensions—including intellectual, sexual, temporal, spiritual, social‑recreational, psychological, emotional, and aesthetic intimacy—non‑abused women reported consistently higher mean levels. The findings revealed significant differences between women with and without experiences of emotional abuse in both marital adjustment and marital intimacy. Multivariate analysis showed that women who had experienced emotional abuse reported significantly lower overall levels of marital adjustment and intimacy compared to non abused women. At the component level, significant group differences were observed in dyadic consensus, dyadic cohesion, and affectional expression, with abused women scoring lower in these dimensions, while no significant difference was found in dyadic satisfaction. Moreover, significant differences were found in several dimensions of marital intimacy, including emotional, psychological, spiritual, aesthetic, and temporal intimacy, all of which were lower among women with experiences of emotional abuse. In contrast, no significant differences were observed in intellectual and sexual intimacy. These results indicate that emotional abuse primarily disrupts the emotional, psychological, and existential dimensions of marital relationships rather than uniformly affecting all aspects of intimacy (Bagarozzi, 2001; Quan et al., 2025). Discussion and Conclusion: The results of the present study demonstrate that experiences of emotional abuse play a critical role in weakening marital adjustment and marital intimacy among women. Emotional abuse erodes emotional security, self worth, and interpersonal trust and disrupts healthy communication patterns, leading to emotional withdrawal, maladaptive interaction styles, and reduced marital functioning (Payazad, 2019; Ebrahimi, 2017). Consistent with previous research, the findings suggest that exposure to emotionally abusive relationships is associated with poorer mental health, lower emotional and psychological intimacy, and decreased marital satisfaction (Dolatian et al., 2019; Hassanzadeh, 2020; Shokour, 2016). These outcomes highlight that emotional abuse is not merely an individual issue but a significant familial and social concern with long term psychological consequences (Noorani et al., 2017; Sadeghi, 2019). Therefore, early identification of emotional abuse and the implementation of preventive and therapeutic interventions—such as cognitive behavioral couple therapy, communication skills training, and programs aimed at enhancing emotional differentiation—are essential for improving marital relationship quality, promoting women’s mental health, and preventing the continuation of the cycle of abuse within families (Bagarozzi, 2001; Ebrahimi, 2017). https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_107150.html WIntroduction: The experience of divorce is the beginning of a life story with various changes and challenges. In fact, for some divorced women, divorce is a multidimensional tension, and for some, it is the beginning of a new life with new motivations. Whatever the reason for divorce, a significant population of divorced women has shown that they experience various scenarios in the post-divorce world. Life after divorce is considered as a psychological/social transition experience with various manifestations, including challenges in children's relationships with parents, economic problems, cultural/social challenges, women's satisfaction with marital dissolution, avoidance of violence, and the heated atmosphere of living with their spouse. Almost all the debates and controversies revolve around the idea that divorce and life after it are a social issue. Interpreters of life in the postmodern era liken divorced women and men to self-made islands under the control of individuals; therefore, social issues, including the experience of divorce and life after it, are complex phenomena that have both individual consequences and social roots. Methodology: The method used in this research is qualitative and phenomenological phenomenology focuses on the conscious and unprejudiced experience of everyday life. An attempt has been made to understand the lived experience of the subjects by means of in-depth and semi-structured interviews and to understand and represent the world from their perspective. After obtaining consent from the participants, the interview process began and each interview lasted between 40 and 60 minutes in one session, and ultimately 25 interviews were conducted. In this research, the participants were divorced women (born between 1350-1359) in Tehran in 1403 who have two characteristics: first, they live with their paternal family after divorce and second, they do not have children. Data were collected in the spring of 1403. Considering that in qualitative research, the sample size is based on theoretical saturation, theoretical saturation was achieved with 25 interviews. The sampling method was snowball sampling. And the method of finding participants was through entrusting them to other people, through social networks (WhatsApp, Telegram, ETA, Yes, Soroush). The questions asked in this research were open-ended. Some of the questions asked were: What was your lived experience of living again? What was your understanding and interpretation of the conditions of living again? How did you feel about living again with your father's family? What challenges did you face? Why did you decide to live with your family after the divorce? The method of questioning was through face-to-face interviews and in some cases through social networks such as ETA and WhatsApp in the form of written text, sending voice messages, and making phone calls to informed individuals. The method of data analysis is based on interpretive phenomenology. This research analyzed data at three levels: The first stage, data description: In this stage, each of the interviews was first implemented; The second stage, data reduction: In this stage, the notes are given a chronological order to extract the main elements of the story. The third stage, data interpretation: This is the final stage that seeks to give meaning to the findings and abstract them. In fact, in this stage, an attempt is made to interpret the patterns and meanings derived from the stories. In this study, an attempt has also been made to use the criterion of reliability to validate the interviews; the interviews were returned to the participants again and the accuracy of the content was confirmed and the necessary changes were made. Findings: The main themes, including (economic problems and challenges, communication issues, physical and mental disorders, cultural and social issues of the family, failure to fulfill the role of father and mother, challenges with the family, sexual issues, entertainment, adherence to religious beliefs, judgment of those around them, distrust) were derived from the lived experience of women. Conclusion: Individual level (psychological and physical) Women faced feelings of failure, anxiety, and depression. Distrust of new relationships and even of their own abilities developed. Psychological stress from society's negative view could lead to physical problems such as chronic headaches or sleep disorders. 🔹 Family level Returning to the parental home meant re-dependence; this dependence was sometimes accompanied by tension and excessive control. The role of mother or father was not fully fulfilled; children were placed in an ambiguous situation between the mother and the extended family. Challenges with siblings or parents, especially in the area of independence and decision-making, created additional pressure. 🔹 Social and cultural level The traditional society of the 1950s had a negative and judgmental view of divorced women. Restrictions on social and sexual relationships, combined with cultural taboos, placed women in a position of isolation. Adherence to religious beliefs sometimes served as a shield against judgment, but in other cases it also created double pressure. Entertainment and social activities were limited, and women had fewer opportunities to experience independent and free lives. ✨ The general explanation for this set of pressures can be seen as an “intertwined network” in which each layer affects the others. Economic pressure exacerbates family dependence; family pressure increases psychological anxiety; social and cultural pressure reinforces distrust and isolation. As a result, divorced women in the 1950s faced a crisis of identity and social role: they had neither an independent economic position, nor social freedom, nor sufficient psychological support. For this reason, their lived experience can be considered an example of multi-layered structural and cultural pressures that place the individual in a vulnerable position and make it very difficult to rebuild life after separation. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_107185.html Introduction The family, as the first and most influential social institution, plays a fundamental role in shaping behavior and ensuring the mental health of its members. The presence of a child with special needs significantly affects the structure, functions, and interaction patterns of this system (Smith et al., 2008). Among these, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is recognized as one of the most serious and complex lifelong neurodevelopmental disorders, characterized by persistent challenges in social communication, repetitive behaviors, and restricted interests (Lord et al., 2020). These challenges impose significant physical and psychological stress on parents and alter the roles of other family members, including siblings (Karst & Van Hecke, 2012). Siblings of individuals with ASD play a unique role in daily care and support, exposing them to complex psychosocial experiences (Zucker et al., 2022). The sibling relationship, typically the longest-lasting relationship (Green, 2013), provides a valuable foundation for social and emotional development (McHale et al., 2012); a topic of double importance for children with ASD (Watson et al., 2021). Research has shown that having a sibling with ASD can lead to the development of empathy and responsibility (Walton & Ingersoll, 2015), but also expose them to psychological pressures such as anxiety and depression (Macks & Reeve, 2007). However, the majority of research has mainly focused on the individual with ASD or on parental stress (Falk et al., 2014), while siblings' lives have often been neglected (Petalas et al., 2012). A deep, comprehensive understanding of their active role-taking has not yet been systematically investigated (Quatrosi et al., 2023). One of the most serious roles assumed by siblings is parentification (Nuttall et al., 2018; Beffel & Nuttall, 2020) referring to a process in which a child assumes parental roles beyond their developmental capacity, observed in instrumental and emotional forms (Rambo-Almanza, 2023). While accepting this role may be an adaptive strategy in the short term, its continuation can have paradoxical consequences for siblings' mental health (Beffel & Nuttall, 2020). Few qualitative studies have investigated parentification and its contributing factors. Most previous research has relied on parents or teachers, not on siblings themselves. The present study aims to develop a model of factors affecting parentification in siblings of individuals with ASD using a grounded theory approach, serving as a basis for developing assessment tools and family-centered interventions. Methodology This qualitative study employed a grounded theory methodology (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The target population included siblings over 12 years of age of individuals with ASD in Isfahan, Iran, in 2025 who were actively engaged in parentification. Participants were selected through purposive and theoretical sampling. Initial purposive sampling identified families with a child diagnosed with ASD and at least one typically developing child over 12 years. A semi-structured screening protocol was developed comprising five operational criteria based on the theoretical framework of parentification. Instrumental parentification was assessed through three criteria: (1) direct supervision and physical care (at least 10 hours/week), (2) participation in caregiving activities (at least 5 times/week), and (3) educational-tutoring responsibilities (at least 3 sessions/week). Emotional parentification was assessed through two criteria: (4) emotional support for parents or emotion regulation of the sibling with ASD (at least 3 times/week), and (5) participation in decision-making and planning (at least once/month). Inclusion required meeting at least three criteria. Content validity was confirmed by experts (CVR>0.78, CVI=0.92), and reliability was established through inter-rater agreement (0.85). Following screening, theoretical sampling proceeded with simultaneous coding. Emerging codes guided selection of subsequent participants. Data collection continued until theoretical saturation, achieved after 12 interviews, with 3 additional interviews confirming saturation. A total of 15 siblings (10 females, 5 males) participated. Semi-structured interviews lasted 50-60 minutes, focusing on individual, family, social, and interactive factors. Data analysis followed open, axial, and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Trustworthiness was ensured using Guba and Lincoln's (1982) four criteria. Findings Analysis yielded 41 open codes, 13 axial codes, and 5 selective codes: (1) intrafamilial factors (characteristics of the sibling with ASD, parenting styles, family structure, parents' health); (2) extrafamilial factors (lack of formal support, weakness of informal support); (3) sibling characteristics (demographic/positional, psychological/personality traits); (4) socio-cultural factors (cultural beliefs, social stigma, gender norms); and (5) factors related to diagnostic and acceptance process (age of diagnosis, parental acceptance). These categories were organized within a multi-level Pressure-Context-Readiness model. Intrafamilial factors and diagnostic/acceptance factors constituted the pressure level, imposing caregiving burden. Extrafamilial and socio-cultural factors served as the context, either exacerbating or moderating pressures. Sibling characteristics constituted the readiness level, determining the extent to which pressures lead to parentification. These three levels interact to explain the formation of parentification. The findings revealed that parentification is a dual-nature phenomenon. When pressures are tolerable, individual readiness (high empathy, responsibility) and supportive contexts direct the role toward positive outcomes including empathy development, independence, and identity formation. When pressures exceed tolerance, socio-cultural contexts exacerbate, and siblings lack psychological readiness, the role leads to anxiety, depression, and psychological burnout. Demographic characteristics showed mean age of 19.07 years (SD=4.54), 66.7% female, mean age gap of 3.93 years (SD=2.07), and mean parentification criteria of 3.93 (SD=0.70). Conclusion Parentification in siblings of individuals with ASD is a multidimensional, multi-level, and dual-nature phenomenon shaped by situational pressures, family-social contexts, and individual readiness. The Pressure-Context-Readiness model provides a systematic framework for understanding how these levels interact to determine whether outcomes follow growth pathways (empathy, responsibility, independence) or pathological pathways (anxiety, depression, and burnout). What determines which pathway is taken is not simply the parental role itself, but the intensity of pressures, quality of supportive contexts, and degree of individual readiness. Unlike previous studies focused on pathological aspects, this framework provides a comprehensive picture of parentification. Supportive interventions should be designed not to eliminate this role but to manage the balance between its positive and negative aspects. Interventions could include reducing burden when it leads to harm and strengthening developmental capacities when possible. Future research should utilize longitudinal designs and multi-site samples to examine parentification across different life stages and test the model in diverse cultural contexts. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_107186.html Highlights: • Psychological distress and parenting self-efficacy have both direct and indirect effects (through perceived spousal support) on the quality of life of mothers of children with ADHD. • Perceived spousal support serves as a full mediating factor in the relationship between psychological distress and parenting self-efficacy with the quality of life of mothers of children with ADHD. • The findings emphasize the importance of stress management training, parenting skills education, spousal support, and counseling in improving mothers' quality of life, with continuous follow-up of these programs strengthening family support. Introduction: Child development is a dynamic process in which some children face difficulties due to genetic or environmental factors, with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder being one of the most common childhood disorders (Njardvik et al., 2025; Sabahi et al., 2025). This disorder causes behavioral, emotional, and cognitive self-regulation problems in children and increases psychological pressure on parents, especially mothers, reducing their quality of life (Peng, 2024; Amro, 2024; Moghaddar & Mohaddes, 2025). Psychological distress is a state of emotional suffering and psychological pressure accompanied by mood, anxiety, and somatic symptoms, having a direct negative impact on quality of life (Chen et al., 2024; Jalala et al., 2024; López-de-León et al., 2025). Furthermore, parenting self-efficacy plays a key role in enhancing parents' quality of life, and parents who have greater belief in their abilities to manage parenting challenges experience higher quality of life and better ability to cope with social pressures (Akafian et al., 2024; Feng et al., 2022). Perceived spousal support, as a key source of support, increases mothers' quality of life, strengthens maternal functioning and parenting self-efficacy, and reduces parenting stress (Lee et al., 2020; Nwozichi & Maciejewski, 2025; Ahmadpour et al., 2023; Suzuki, 2010; Goldyne, 2013). Given the high prevalence of ADHD and its effects on mothers, the present study aimed to model the impact of psychological distress and parenting self-efficacy on the quality of life in mothers of children with ADHD, with the mediating role of perceived spousal support. Methodology: The present study was applied research with a correlational design using structural equation modeling. The statistical population included mothers of children with ADHD in Sabzevar city in 2025. According to the minimum recommended sample size for structural equation analysis (Lomax & Schumacher, 2015), 230 individuals were considered as the initial sample, with 210 valid questionnaires remaining for statistical analysis. Sampling was conducted using convenience and voluntary methods, with participants selected from mothers who referred to counseling and psychological service centers and were willing to participate. Inclusion criteria included age 20-50 years, having a child with ADHD, at least basic literacy, and absence of psychological problems. Exclusion criteria included unwillingness to continue or incomplete completion of questionnaires. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 27 for descriptive analyses and LISREL version 8.8 for structural equation modeling analyses. Findings: This study involved 210 mothers of children with ADHD (mean age 35.90 years). Most mothers (56.7%) were in the 30-40 age range and had bachelor's degrees (33.3%). Of the children, 53.3% were boys, and the most common child ages were 8, 10, and 11 years (23.3% each).Descriptive findings showed that the mean total quality of life score for mothers was 51.66, psychological distress was 22.19, parenting self-efficacy was 39.46, and perceived spousal support was 59.69. All variables had normal distributions.Correlation results showed that quality of life had a significant negative relationship with psychological distress (r = -0.54) and significant positive relationships with parenting self-efficacy (r = 0.56) and perceived spousal support (r = 0.65). Model fit indices (χ²/df = 1.82, RMSEA = 0.063, CFI = 0.93) indicated good fit of the structural model.Structural equation modeling findings showed that psychological distress had a direct negative effect (β = -0.17) and parenting self-efficacy had a direct positive effect (β = 0.26) on quality of life. Additionally, perceived spousal support played a significant mediating role in the relationship between psychological distress (β = -0.245) and parenting self-efficacy (β = 0.120) with quality of life. These findings highlight the importance of spousal support in improving the quality of life in mothers of children with ADHD. Conclusion: This study aimed to investigate the role of psychological distress and parenting self-efficacy on the quality of life in mothers of children with ADHD, with the mediating role of perceived spousal support. The results showed that psychological distress had a significant negative relationship with quality of life, and chronic caregiving pressures can reduce mothers' mental health and life satisfaction (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Furthermore, parenting self-efficacy had a significant positive relationship with quality of life and played a protective role in reducing parenting stress and promoting psychological well-being (Bandura, 1997). Perceived spousal support directly improved mothers' quality of life and was considered an important source of psychosocial support (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Additionally, spousal support played a mediating role in the relationship between psychological distress and quality of life and could moderate the negative effects of stress (Bowen, 1978). Overall, the findings emphasize the importance of strengthening coping resources, parenting self-efficacy, and spousal support in enhancing mothers' quality of life. The present study faced limitations in generalizability and inference of causal relationships due to convenience sampling, cross-sectional design, and use of self-report instruments, and future randomized, longitudinal, and multi-informant studies are recommended. The results are only generalizable to mothers in Sabzevar and should be generalized to other populations with caution. From a practical perspective, designing programs to reduce psychological distress, increase parenting self-efficacy, and strengthen spousal support can help improve mothers' quality of life. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_107234.html Introduction: Marital intimacy, a deep emotional, cognitive, and behavioral bond between spouses, is a key predictor of relationship satisfaction and stability. Drawing on Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, intimacy involves feelings of closeness and emotional bonding, and extends across multiple dimensions: emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual. Intimacy is not static but can be strengthened through targeted interventions. Marriage and Relationship Education (MRE) programs have emerged as preventive approaches to enhance relationship quality and reduce divorce rates. These programs aim to equip couples with knowledge and skills such as communication and conflict resolution. However, evidence regarding their effectiveness has been inconsistent, with effect sizes ranging from large to negligible. Historically, MRE has emphasized skill-based training rooted in social learning theory. The Couple Communication Program (CCP), developed by Miller in 1971, is one of the most widely used and researched programs, teaching communication skills through structured group sessions. Despite its popularity, some scholars question whether skill deficits are the primary cause of marital distress. Negative interaction patterns may stem more from destructive attitudes and lack of motivation than from insufficient skills. Fowers (2001) argued that communication skills alone are insufficient without underlying virtues such as kindness, fairness, and self-control. Virtue-based approaches, aligned with positive psychology, focus on character strengths and perspective transformation rather than merely correcting deficits. The Getting Our Hearts Right (GOHR) program, developed by Goddard and Marshall (2013), is a brief, virtue-based intervention that addresses cognitive biases (e.g., egocentrism, confirmation bias, naïve realism) and cultivates three marital virtues: humility, compassion, and positivity. This study compares the effectiveness of GOHR and CCP on marital intimacy at posttest and three-month follow-up. Methodology: This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest-posttest-follow-up design with a control group. The sample included 45 couples (90 individuals) recruited from family counseling centers in Sabzevar, Iran, in 2024. Inclusion criteria were: both spouses had at least a high school diploma, were in their first marriage, had a marriage duration of 3 to 15 years, and committed to attending all sessions. Eligible couples were randomly assigned to three groups: GOHR (n=15 couples), CCP (n=15 couples), and waitlist control (n=15 couples). The GOHR program was delivered in four weekly two-hour sessions (total 8 hours), including lectures, group discussions, and between-session worksheets. The CCP program consisted of ten weekly 90-minute sessions (total 15 hours), involving skill instruction, role-playing, and homework. Marital intimacy was measured using the 17-item Intimacy Scale (IS) by Walker and Thompson (1983), translated into Persian and validated by Sanaei (2000). Cronbach’s alpha in this study ranged from 0.89 to 0.93. Data were analyzed using split-plot ANOVA and Bonferroni pairwise comparisons. Findings: Demographic characteristics (age, education, marriage duration, employment, number of children) were comparable across groups. Mean intimacy scores increased from pretest to posttest and were maintained at follow-up in both intervention groups, with the GOHR group showing higher scores than CCP at both time points. The control group remained stable. Split-plot ANOVA revealed a significant group-by-time interaction for GOHR vs. control (F = 30.15, p = 0.0001, partial η² = 0.52) and for CCP vs. control (F = 22.09, p = 0.0001, partial η² = 0.44). Bonferroni comparisons indicated significant improvements in the GOHR group across all time intervals (pretest to posttest, pretest to follow-up, and posttest to follow-up). GOHR participants showed significantly greater gains in marital intimacy than CCP participants across all time points. Conclusion: This study found that the GOHR program, which targets marital virtues, was more effective than the CCP program in enhancing marital intimacy. These findings support theoretical frameworks emphasizing the role of character strengths in relationship quality. Virtues such as humility, compassion, and positivity serve as cognitive-affective regulators that mitigate destructive perceptual biases. Humility enables spouses to recognize the limits of their own perspective and remain open to their partner’s viewpoint. Compassion shifts attention from blame to understanding, reducing fundamental attribution bias. Positivity counteracts negativity bias, directing focus toward strengths rather than deficits. The superiority of GOHR over CCP lies in its underlying logic: rather than teaching communication techniques in isolation, it begins with a transformation in perspective. While CCP follows a “skill-behavior-outcome” model, GOHR operates on a “perspective-behavior-outcome” logic. Skills are more likely to be internalized and applied when grounded in virtues. A key limitation of skill-based programs is the “knowing-doing gap”—couples may know what to do but fail to act during emotionally charged conflicts. GOHR addresses this gap by reshaping the interpretive frameworks through which spouses perceive and respond to one another. This study has several limitations. First, the moderating role of marriage duration was not examined. Marital needs and interaction patterns vary across family life stages, and the impact of virtues may differ accordingly. Second, the sample was limited to one city in Iran, which may restrict generalizability. Third, follow-up was limited to three months; longer-term effects remain unknown. Fourth, the study was conducted in a controlled setting; field replications are needed. Fifth, only one dependent variable was assessed; future research should examine broader outcomes such as conflict resolution, forgiveness, and relationship satisfaction. Despite these limitations, this study provides empirical evidence that virtue-based interventions can produce lasting improvements in marital intimacy. The findings challenge the dominant skill-based paradigm in couple education and support the integration of virtue-focused content into MRE programs. Cultivating marital virtues may serve as a foundational step in helping couples build resilient, satisfying relationships. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_107263.html Abstract Attitudes and ideas about the crucial role of noncustodial fathers in the transition to effective and supportive co-parenting after divorce have significantly changed over the last few decades. The purpose of this research is to identify and analyse the experiences of noncustodial fathers in the pathway of post-divorce co-parenting, using a qualitative phenomenological approach. In this study, twelve noncustodial fathers were selected using purposive sampling. The data obtained from semi-structured interviews were analysed based on Colaizzi’s phenomenological method. Qualitative descriptive phenomenological analysis of the data revealed six major themes – “emotional turmoil, economic challenges and financial conflicts, restricted access and gatekeeping, undermining, disengagement and alienation, and mental health challenges” – that are used to identify innovative ways for researchers and family practitioners to support co-parenting after divorce and assist them in achieving supportive co-parenting. Keywords: Divorce, Co-Parenting Challenges, Non-Custodial Fathers, Qualitative Study. Over the past four decades, family structures have changed significantly and directly worldwide; these changes are partly due to the increase in divorce as a serious problem (Rajabpour Azizi et al., 2025). Family transitions, such as divorce, are known to be unstable periods for family relationships and parenting behaviours (Patern et al., 2021); the period after divorce is often complex and difficult for both custodial and non-custodial parents and children, due to the often tense context following separation (Samel, Binu, & Butvoir, 2025). This period is fraught with challenges in deciding and negotiating custody and visitation, sharing information about children, uncertainty and disagreement about expectations, future mutual contact, and contact with children, which can lead to conflict, disengagement, and re-establishment of parental relationships (Patern et al., 2021). These conditions affect the dynamics of parental relationships and can threaten the reconstruction of co-parenting relationships, as parents may have different interests (Rejaen, van der Valk, & Branier, 2022). Co-parenting is a shared activity carried out by two or more adults who jointly assume social responsibility, care, and upbringing of the children for whom they are responsible (McHale & Sirotkin, 2019). Separated parents should continue to co-parent based on the values of cooperation, support, sharing, and understanding, and on the principles of the best interests of the child and gender equality (Pereira & Pinto, 2015). However, working closely with the other parent on such a complex and important task as this, and in the long term, can be difficult and challenging, especially for non-custodial fathers (Di Carvalho et al., 2022). The present study used a phenomenological approach to understand the challenges of co-parenting after divorce from the perspective of non-custodial fathers. The study population included divorced fathers living in Shiraz who did not have legal custody of their child after the divorce. Inclusion criteria included having at least one biological child under the age of 18, both biological parents being alive and having a role in the child’s life, at least 6 months having passed since the divorce, and a voluntary willingness to participate in the study. Exclusion criteria included not meeting the inclusion criteria and not wanting to participate in the study. Participants in this study were selected through purposive sampling. Interviews with fathers who met the inclusion criteria continued until data saturation, that is, when no new concepts were obtained from the interviews and the information became repetitive. Finally, the study was completed with 12 participants. Data analysis was conducted using the seven-step method of Colaizzi (1978). However, the findings clearly revealed six main themes of emotional turmoil with themes of sadness, feelings of helplessness, loneliness, feelings of inadequacy and incompetence, feelings of inadequacy, hopelessness, anger, guilt, feelings of powerlessness, feelings of role loss; economic challenges and financial conflicts with subthemes of unemployment, insufficient income, disputes over alimony, disputes over financial support, unreasonable financial expectations of the mother; limiting access and gatekeeping with subthemes of preventing visitation, canceling planned visitation without reason, making it harder to pick up or drop off the child, cutting off visitation due to delays in alimony/financial support, concealing and limiting child information, controlling father-child communication, limiting communication using the kinship network, depriving visitation due to anger and hatred; Weakening with subthemes of making negative comments about the father in the presence of the child, ignoring the father's parenting style, replacing the father with another adult, opposing the father's decision-makers, and making ridiculing and sarcastic remarks about the father; disconnection and alienation with subthemes of belittling and badmouthing the father, exaggerating the father's minor shortcomings, instilling false beliefs and unfounded accusations, and creating guilt in the child about the relationship and contact with the father; and the main theme of mental health challenges with subthemes of anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, substance abuse, and alcohol use. The findings are largely consistent with previous research. These themes that emerged from the interviews were consistent with the themes identified by Kruk (2010) and Kruk (2015). Despite the fact that divorce is legally considered the end of a marriage, with the presence of a child, parents will continue to share a common chapter in the form of co-parenting. Divorce is a psychologically challenging experience that disrupts individuals’ lives and forces them to reorganize parental roles and responsibilities. However, most research has focused on women, and the experience of non-custodial fathers has received less attention. Focusing on this gap, this study revealed that non-custodial fathers on the path to co-parenting after divorce face personal turmoil and challenges, communication challenges with the former spouse, and child-related issues. The findings of this research can provide new insights for theorizing in the field of post-divorce families and assist family counseling and psychology professionals in designing supportive interventions focused on the well-being of divorced parents and their children.